
Class __SF4i^ 



Book S-K.3 

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COPmiGHT DEPOSIT. 



POULTRY DISEASES 

Including Diseases of Other Domesticated Birds 



With a Chapter on the 
Anatomy of the Fowl 



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by 



B. F. Kaupp, B.S., M.S., D.V.M. 

Pathologist and Poultry Investigator, Animal Industry Division, North Carolina 
Experiment Station and Agricultural College. Formerly Director of Anatomy 
Laboratory Kansas City Veterinary College. Formerly Pathologist 
for the Colorado Experiment Station and Agricultural Col- 
lege. Formerly Veterinary Inspector B. A. I., etc. 



THIRD EDITION 



Revised and Enlarged 



CHICAGO 

ALEXANDER EGER 

1922 



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Copyright, 

1922, 

by 

Alexander Eger 



SEP 15 1922 

©CI.A681862 



FOREWORD TO THIRD EDITION 

This book was written to fill a need from veterinary stu- 
dents, students in poultry husbandry courses at agricultural 
colleges, veterinary practitioners and others interested in the 
scientific treatment of poultry diseases. 

An efi^ort has been made to make the language so plain that 
all can comprehend the subject matter, which is a summary 
of the results of experimental research in the laboratory of 
pathology of the author and of many other investigators. 

For the purpose of simplification, the synonyms are given 
for the various names of diseases. Then follow, in order, the 
cause, the symptoms, the conditions found upon post-mortem 
examination, and lastly the treatment and means of eradica- 
tion for each disease. 

The first and second editions being exhausted in so short 
a time is evidence that it has met the expectations of persons 
interested in the scientific treatment of poultry — that it fills a 
real need. The third edition has been thoroughly revised and 
brought down to date. Much new information has accumu- 
lated as a result of continued and persistent eflForts of investi- 
gators in the field of poultry pathology. 

State College Station, Raleigh, N. C. B. F. KAUPP. 

September, 1922. 



CONTENTS 
List of Illustrations 9 

Chapter I 
Anatomy .......... 17 

The skeletal anatomy of the fowl ; head and neck, trunk and 
limbs ; visceral anatomy ; digestive tract, genito-urinary tract, 
organs of respiration, organs of circulation ; ductless glands 
and accessory glands of digestion; blood of a normal fowl; 
the lymph vascular system ; nervous system ; organs of special 
sense; reproductive organs of the hen. 

Chapter II 

Sanitation .......... 55 

Site for the poultry plant ; buildings and runs ; immunity or 
natural resistance ; health of the baby chick as influenced by 
incubation ; effect of atmospheric surroundings ; water supply ; 
disinfection of buildings; disinfection of yards; disposal of 
sick and dead birds ; mode of performing autopsy. 

Chapter III 
External Parasites . . . . . . . .75 

Definition ; lice of birds ; how and where lice multiply ; effects 
of lice upon the fowls; dealing with louse infestation; scabies 
of fowls; air sac disease; red mite infestation of the hen 
house; fleas affecting birds; tick infestation; the bedbug of 
poultry ; bee stings ; fungi affecting fowls ; white scale of the 
face, wattles and comb; mycosis of pigeons; baldness of 
fowls and canaries ; blastomycosis of the goose. 

Chapter IV 

Internal Parasites . 109 

Definition ; important round worms ; the gap worm ; unimpor- 
tant round worms ; tapeworms ; thorn headed worm ; flukes ; 
worms of canaries ; diseases due to protozoa ; coccidiosis ; 
coccidian white diarrhea ; coccidiosis of adult fowl ; coccidiosis 
of wild duck ; protozoal hepatitis of pigeon ; sarcocystis ; 
leucocytozoon of duck; tr3panosomiasis of birds; malaria of 
fowl ; enterohepatitis or blackhead. 



6 CONTENTS 

Chapter V 
Diseases of the Digestive Tract of Fowls .... 145 

Obstruction of the beak; parched tongue or pip ; stomatitis; 
croupous inflammation of the pigeon; impaction of the crop; 
impaction of the intestines; tympany of the crop; enlarged 
crop ; gangrene of the crop ; catarrh of the crop ; depraved 
appetite; indigestion; distension of the bursa of f abricus ; 
clocaitis ; peritonitis ; ascites ; nephritis ; suppurative inflam- 
mation of the gizzard; calculi; eversion of the cloaca and 
oviduct ; volvulus or gut tie in a fowl ; intussusception of the 
intestine of the fowl; intestinal diseases of canaries; consti- 
pation ; diarrhea diseases of fowls. 

Chapter VI 
Diseases Due to Bacteria ....... 165 

Infectious blood diseases ; fowl cholera ; fowl typhoid ; mye- 
loid leukemia; bacillary white diarrhea; adult fowl infection; 
apoplectiform septicaemia of fowls and pigeons; sleeping dis- 
ease of fowls; epiornithologic pneumo-pericarditis in turkeys; 
infectious enteritis of pheasants ; hemorrhagis septicaemia of 
the dove; cholera of swans; septicaemia of parrots; septi- 
caemia of pigeons ; grouse and quail diseases ; fowl pest ; 
septicaemias of canary birds; inflammation of the joints of 
geese and ducks ; spirochetosis ; infectious constitutional dis- 
eases ; tuberculosis ; pseudo tuberculosis ; aspergillosis. 

Chapter VII 
Constitutional Diseases ....... 195 

Asthene ; gout of fowls. 

Chapter VIII 

Diseases of the Respiratory Passages . . . .201 

Obstruction of the trachea; catarrh; asthma; bronchitis; 
contagious bronchitis; congestion of the lungs; pneumonia — 
inflammation of the lungs of fowls; contagious nasal catarrh 
of fowls; contagious inflammation of the air sacs of geese; 
roup, avian diphtheria ; chicken pox ; contagious epithelioma ; 
diphtheric sore eye; respiratory diseases of canaries; asthma 
of canaries. 

Chapter IX 
Diseases of the Liver ....... 219 

Fatty degeneration; fatty infiltration; rupture of the liver; 
congestion of the liver; inflammation of the liver; inflamma- 
tion of the bile ducts and gall bladder; enterohepatitis ; other 
diseases of the liver. 



CONTENTS 7 

Chapter X 

Diseases of the Ovary and the Oviduct .... 223 

Prolapse or cversion of the oviduct ; obstruction of the ovi- 
duct ; rupture of the oviduct ; broken eggs in oviduct ; ab- 
normal eggs ; obstruction of the oviduct due to ulceration of 
the anus ; dwarf eggs ; epiornithologic abortion in birds. 

Chapter XI 
General Diseases . . . . . . . .231 

Purulent inflammation of the abdomen ; purulent inflamma- 
tion of the air sacs ; contagious inflammation of the air sacs 
of geese; abscess of the foot; dry gangrene of the feet of 
chicks; pericarditis; endocarditis; myocarditis; hypertrophy; 
productive inflammation of the soft structures of the shank, 
comb and v^^attles ; rupture of the heart and large blood ves- 
sels ; thrombosis ; gangrene ; inflammation of the oil gland ; 
swell head of young turkeys; pox of turkeys; diphtheric 
inflammation of the eyes of ducks; ulceration of the cornea; 
frozen comb; broken beaks; arthritis terminating in osteitis 
of the femorotibial articulation of the cock; open joint in 
fowl. 

Chapter XII 
Tumors 249 

Definition ; classification of tumors ; adult epithelial tumors ; 
adenoma ; papilloma ; carcinoma ; epithelioma ; lipoma ; chon- 
droma ; osteoma ; fibroma ; myoma ; angioma ; lymphoma ; 
myxoma ; hematoma ; sarcoma ; compound tumors ; cyst-lipo- 
osteo-chondro-adeno-carcinomata ; lympho-sarcoma ; myxo- 
sarcoma ; sarco-chondro-osteomata ; teratoma ; horny growths ; 
cysts ; cystoma ; caseous abdominal tumors or cysts. 

Chapter XIII 

Diseases of the Brain and Nerves of the Fowl . . . 273 

Leg weakness ; paralysis of the domestic fowl ; rheumatism ; 
paralysis of the wings of pigeons; dizziness, vertigo; hem- 
orrhage of the brain; epilepsy; myelitis; polyneuritis; paraly- 
sis of the auditory nerve; paralysis of the cocklear nerve; 
paralysis of the vestibular nerve. 

Chapter XIV 
Bacteria of the Intestinal Tract of the Fowl . . . 285 

Chapter XV 

Composition of the Egg ....... 287 

Composition of the egg shell ; animal parasites in eggs ; bac- 
teria of eggs ; bacteria in fresh eggs. 



8 CONTENTS 

Chapter XVI 
Malformations 291 

Chapter XVII 
Fractures — 'Wounds — Anaesthesia 303 

Fractures; repair of the fracture of bone in the domestic 
fowl ; the structure of bone ; reparative process of bone ; the 
treatment of fracture and care of the fowl; wounds; anaes- 
thesia and restraint of the fowl; injury to the sternum or 
breast bone; curvature of the spine. 

Chapter XVIII 
Castration or Caponizing . . . . . . .313 

Ovariectom}- of the pullet. 

Chapter XIX 
Foods Poisonous to Fowls 319 

The rose chafer; arsenical poisoning; salt poisoning; other 
mineral poisoning; ptomaine poisoning; limber neck or botul- 
ism ; corn cockle poisoning" ; ergot poisoning. 

Chapter XX 
Poultry Remedies . . . . . . . .325 

Temperature, respiration, pulse and blood pressure of the 
domestic fowd ; poultry materia medica ; list of dosage of 
drugs for adult fowls. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

1. The Bony Skeleton of the Domestic Fowl 4 

2. The Visceral Organs of the Hen 6 

3. Visceral Organs of the Right Side of the Fowl 23 

4. Visceral Organs of the Left Side of the Fowl 24 

5. Section Through the Median Line of a Two Pound Pullet.. 25 

6. Transverse Section Through the Thoracic Region 27 

7. Heart of Fowl With Its Main Branches 33 

8. Blood Vessels of the Pelvis and Thigh of a Fowl 35 

9. Brain and Eyehall of a Fowl 38 

10. Section Through the Eye of a Hen 41 

11. Cochlear Labrynth of a Hen 41 

12. The Pelvic Organs of a Pullet 44 

13. The Functionating Pelvic Organs of a Hen 45 

14. Photomicrograph of a Section of the Ovary of a Hen 46 

15. Diagramatic Structure of the Egg 48 

16. Generative Organs of a Cockerel 51 

17. Reproductive Organs of a Cock Showing Functioning Testes 52 

18. Photomicrograph of Spermatozoa from a Single Comlj White 

Leghorn 53 

19. Menopon Biseriatum 11 

20. Menopon Pallidum 11 

21 . Gonoicotes Gigas 78 

22. Gonoicotes Hologaster 78 

23. Goniodes Stylifer 79 

24. Lipeurus Baculus 79 

25. Eggs or Nits of the Goniodes Stylifer 80 

26. Lipeurus Infuscatus 80 

27. Seven Weeks Old Single Comb White Leghorn Cockerel In- 

fested by Head and Neck Lice 81 

28. Lipeurus Variabilis, Depluming Louse 82 

29. Goniodes Damicornis 83 

30. An Inexpensive Spray Pump 86 

31. Sarcoptes Mutans Variety Gallinae 88 

32. Scaly Legs or Scabies 89 

ZZ. Cytodites Nudus, the Air Sac Mite 92 

34. Trombidium Holosericeum or Chicken Mite 93 

35. Dermanyssus Gallinae 98 

Zd. Pulex Avium 99 

Zl . Sarcopsvlla Gallinaceae 100 

38. Argas Miniatus 102 

39. Acanthia Inodora 104 

40. Ascaris Inflexa 1 10 

41. Heterakis Papillosa 110 

42. Heterakis Papillosa 110 

43. Heterakis Papillosa 112 

44. Spiroptera Hamulosa 114 

45. Syngamus Trachealis 116 

46. Taenia Infundibuliformis 121 

47. Nodular Taeniasis 123 

48. Section Through Caecum of Chick Dead of Coccidiosis 129 



10 ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

49. Showing Various Stages of the Development of the Coccidiae 129 

50. Puhnonary Coccidiosis of a Wild Duck 131 

51. Intestinal Coccidiosis of a Wild Duck 131 

52. Enterohepatitis of the Liver of. a Turkey 136 

53. Cloudv Swelling of the Liver of a Turkey With Enterohepa- 

titis 137 

54. A Turkev Afflicted With F^lackhead 138 

55. Caecum of a Turkey Afflicted With Blackhead . 138 

56. Photomicrograph of a Section of the Liver of a Turkey With 

Blackhead 139 

57. Blood Smear from a Case of Blackhead 140 

58. Section of a Kidney of a Case of Blackhead 141 

59. Photomicrograph of a Liver Showing Ameha Meleagridis. . . . 141 

60. Croupus Inflammation of the Throat of a Pigeon 148 

61. Pendulous Crop in a Barred Plymouth Rock Hen 152 

62. Suppurative Inflammation of the Gizzard of a Fowl 158 

63. Eversion of the Cloaca and Oviduct of a Hen 159 

64. Volvulus or Gut Tie in a Fowl 160 

65. Invagination of the Bowel of a Fowl 161 

66. Hemorrhagic Enteritis of a Hen 163 

67. Blood Smear from a Case of Fowl Cholera 165 

68. Spirocheta Gallinarum 186 

69. A Fowl With Acute Spirochetosis 186 

70. Tuberculosis of a Fowl 188 

71. Gout of the Feet of a Barred Plymouth Rock Capon 198 

72. Obstruction of the Trachea of a Chick 201 

• Ti. Obstruction of the Larynx of a Hen 202 

74. Ulcerative Pharyngitis of a Fowl 204 

75. Chicken Pox ._ 210 

76. Contagious Epithelioma of the Heads of Two Chicks 211 

11 . Diphtheric Roup in a Fowl 214 

1%. Roup of a Fowl 216 

79. Obstruction of the Oviduct Due to Constriction 226 

80. Eggs Within Eggs 227 

81. An Egg With Four Membranes 228 

82. Three Dwarf Eggs and Their Causes 229 

83. Photomicrograph Showing Pus Cells and Chains of Strep- 

tococci 231 

84. Purulent Inflammation of the Abdominal K\x Sac 232 

85. A Foot Properly Bandaged 234 

86. An Abscess of the Foot Due to a Russian Thistle 235 

87. Crooked Toes and Their Remedy 236 

88. Miscroscopic Study of Purulent Myocarditis 238 

89. Hypertrophy of the Cecum of a Cock 240 

90. Productive Inflammation of the Shanks of a Cock 240 

91. Thrombosis of the Blood Vessels of a Hen 241 

92. Gangrene of the Foot of a Turkey 242 

93. Ulceration of the Cornea of a Baby Chick 245 

94. Osteitis of the Femoro-Tibial Articulation 247 

95. Papilloma of the Shank of a Hen 252 

96. Epithelioma of the Skin of a Chicken 253 

97. Osteoma of the Hen Involving the Joints 255 

98. Hematoma of the Ovary of a Hen 258 

99. Spindle Celled Sarcoma of the Skin of a Hen 259 

100. Cysto-Lipo-Chondro-Osteo-Adeno-Carcinoma of a Cock.. 260 

101. Lympho-Sarcoma of a Single Comb White Leghorn Hen. 261 



ILLUSTRATIONS 11 

Fig. Page 

102. Lympho-Sarcoma of a Single Comb Rhode Island Red Hen.. 262 

103. Myxo-Sarconia 263 

104. Photomicrograph of a Myxo-Sarcoma of a Flen 264 

105. Sarco-Chondro-Osteomata of the Thigh of a Hen 265 

106. A Horny Growth from the Thigh of a Fowl 266 

107. Multiple Tmnors or Cysts of the Ovarv of a Hen 268 

108. A Single Comb Rhode Island Red Hen With an Abdom- 

inal Cyst 269 

109. Section Through Mass of Arrested Formative Eggs 270 

110. Paralysis of a Single Comb Rhode Island Red Hen 275 

111. Apoplexy or Hemorrhage of the Brain of a Mottled Houdan.. 278 

112. Paralysis of the Auditory Nerve of a Silver Campine Hen.. .. 282 

113. Dipvgus tetrabrachium 291 

114. Polymclus 292 

115. Double Genital Organs of a Hen 293 

116. Holoacardius Acephalus 294 

117. Fowl Supernumerary Hind Limbs 296 

118. Double Head and Keck 297 

119. Duck With Two Necks 297 

120. Supernumerary Hind Limbs 298 

121. Dipygus, the Supernumerary Hind Limbs Are Ventrallv At- 

tached ". ." 298 

122. Two Bodies With Legs, Wings and Anus 299 

123. One Leg Onlv 300 

124. Umbilical Hernia of a Baby Chick 301 

125. Sections Through Fractured Bones 304 

125. Photomicrograph Showing Repair of Bone 305 

127. Roentgenograph of Fractured Bones 306 

128. Broken Leg of Rhode Island Red Pullet Properly Set 307 

129. A Convenient Poultry Operating Table 310 

130. Injury to the Sternum 311 

131. Curvature of the Spine of a Young Develooing Chick 312 

132. Tod of a Barrel L^sed as an Operating Table 315 

133. A Photograph of a Cock and a Capon 317 

134. The Rose Chafer 319 




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Fig. 1. Thk r.iiw Skklkton of thk Domestic Fowl. 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 1 

Head and Neck 

1, OS incisivum or premaxilla; 2, anterior nasal opening; 3, os 
nasale or nasal bone ; 4, os lacrimale or lacrimal bone ; 5, lamina 
perpendicularis of the ethmoid bone or perpendicular plate between 
the eye orbits; 6, os maxillare or inferior mandible or the inferior 
jaw; 7, OS palatinea or the bone supporting the hard palate; 8, os 
quadratojugal; 9, os pterygoideum or pterygoid bone; 10, os quad- 
ratum or quadrate bone; 11, os articulare, the articular portion of the 
inferior jaw; 12, external auditory canal; 13, atlas or the first cer- 
vical vertebra. 

Trunks and Limbs 

14, OS carpi radiale also called the scapho-lunar and located 
between the radius and metacarpus and constituting one of the two 
wrist or carpal bones; 15, the radius, which in the chicken, is 
smaller than the ulna; 16, the first digit or thumb also called the 
false or bastard wing; 17, metacarpus, two in number, fused at 
either end; 18, the first phalanx of the second finger; 19, the third, 
small rudimentary digit or finger; 20, os carpi ulnare, also called the 
cuneiform, is anvillike in shape and is located between the ulna, 
radius and metacarpus; 21, os ulnae or ulnar bone, the largest bone 
of the forearm; 22, os humeri or humerus constituting the arm bone; 
23, the dorsal or thoracic vertebrae; 24, os scapulare or scapula; 
25, OS ilii or ilium, the long pelvic bone; 26, foramen ischiadicum 
through which the ischiadic nerve passes; 27, coccygeal or tail ver- 
tebrae; 28, pygostyle or plough share, the last bone of the tail; 
29, foramen obturatorum through which the tendon of the internal 
obturator muscle passes; 30, os ischii or ischium, one of the pelvic 
bones; 31, uncinate or hook-shaped process of the ribs, this gives 
greater surface for attachment of muscles; Zl, vertebral portion of 
the rib, ribs in birds are divided into a vertebral and a sternal por- 
tion; ZZ, OS clavicula or clavicle which come together at the bottom, 
forming the hypocledium, this represents the collar bone; 34, os 
coracoideum or coracoid bone; 35, os femori or femur, the thigh 
bone; 36, the pubis or lay bones; Zl , the sternum or breast bone 
which is expanded into the keel shown in figure 40, also provided 
with lateral sternal processes as shown at figure 38, and costal proc- 
esses shown at figure 39; 41, sternal or inferior portion of the rib 
attaching to the breast bone or sternum; 42, the lateral external 
process of the sternum; 43, the fibula which in the chicken articulates 
with the femur and tibia; 44, the posterior process or xiphoid portion 
of the sternum ; 45, the internal notch of the sternum ; 46, the patella 
often called the knee cap; 47, the tibia or drum stick; 48, the meta- 
tarsus or shank; 49, 50, and 53, the principal digits; 51, the rudimen- 
tary digit or toe; 52, the toe nail; 58, the external notch of the 
sternum.. 






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Fig. 2. The Visceral Organs of the Hen. 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 2 

Digestive Tract 

1, the beak; 2, the tongue; 3, the pharynx or throat; 4, the first 
portion of the esophagus or gullet; 5, the crop or storehouse for 
food; 6, the second portion of the esophagus; 7, the proventriculus 
or glandular stomach; 8, the gizzard or muscular stomach; 9, the 
duodenum or first portion of the small intestine; 10, the duodenal 
loop, between which lies the pancreas; 11, the floating portion of 
the small intestine; 12, the caeca or blind pouches; 13, the blind 
extremities of the caeca; 14, the juncture of the small intestine, 
caeca, and large intestine; 15, the large intestine or rectum; 16, the 
cloaca or cesspool; 18, the anus; 19, the mesentary, a web-like struc- 
ture which supports the free portion of the small intestine; 25, the 
pancreas which is located between the limbs of the duodenal loop; 
26, the liver; 27, the gall bladder; 28, the spleen. 

Genito -urinary Tract 

17, opening of the oviduct into the cloaca; 22, the left ovary; 
23, the egg canal; 20, opening of the ureter or canal from the kidney 
into the cloaca. 

Organs of Respiration 

29, the nostrils; 30, the frontal sinus; 31, the infraorbital sinus; 
32, the turbinated bones; 33, the posterior nares or posterior open- 
ing of the nasal passage; 34, the glottis or opening into the larynx; 
35, the superior larynx; 36, the trachea or wind pipe; 37, the true 
or inferior larynx; 38, the left lung. 

Organs of Circulation 

39, the heart pulled down to bring into view the inferior larynx; 
40, the aorta; 41, the left brachial artery; 42, the carotid artery. 



CHAPTER I 

ANATOMY OF THE FOWL* 

THE PECULIARITY OF THE BONES OF FOWLS 

In the young bird the bones, for the most part, contain 
cavities hlled with red marrow. In the adult bird these cavities 
are largely tilled with air. The air passes from the respiratory 
organs into these cavities. This air is gradually renewed in the 
process of respiration. In the running bird most of the bones 
contain marrow. Separate bronchial tubes of the lungs are 
continued by air sacs and these through extensions communi- 
cate with the air spaces of the bones. The air spaces are more 
abundant in the larger bones as the humerus, ulna and radius. 

The air goes into the air passages and bony cavities of the 
head, then through the superior larynx, trachea, and inferior 
larynx into the bronchi. From air tubules here, the air passes 
into the air cells of the body cavities and then into the air cells 
of the bones. In the process of breathing the air is draw^i out 
of the air sacs located in the body and bone cavities. Fresh 
air in turn is forced through the small communicating tubules 
whicli enter the hollow bones through small openings in their 
bony walls. 

DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON 

For study of the skeleton it may be divided into three 
regions : head and neck, trunk, and limbs. 

THE HEAD AND NECK 

(The numbers refer to Fig. 1) 

The bird's head is rather small and conical in shape in front 
and is composed of several bones as shown in Fig. 1. The 
OS incisivum or premaxilla (1) forms the anterior part of the 
upper jaw. It is elongated anteriorly into a v-shaped structure 
in the chicken, turkey, guinea, and pigeon and is flattened in the 
water fowl as the goose and duck. This portion constitutes 
the beak. This bone, together with the inferior maxilla (6) 
forms the prehensile organ or means of picking both solids and 
liquids. This organ contains the anterior nasal opening (2) 
through which air passes on its way to the lungs. The lamina 
perpendicularis of the ethmoid bone (5) forms a thin wall 
between the two orbits or eye cavities. It contains an opening 

*For a detail study the student is referred to Anatomy of tlie Domestic Fowl 
by B. F. Kaupp and published by W. 13. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa, 



18 POULTRY DISEASES 

or foramen for the passage of the optic nerve and a smaller 
opening, the ethmoid foramen, for the passage of the ethmoid 
nerve. The os palatinum or palatine bone encircles the gut- 
tural opening of the nasal passage and forms the greater part 
of the hard palate or roof of the mouth. It articulates with 
the pterygoid, superior maxilla and premaxilla. The os ptery- 
goideum or pterygoid bone (9), articulates with the sphenoid 
and OS quadratum (10). The os quadratum articulates with 
the temporal, maxilla, zygomatic, and pterygoid. The os 
articulare (11) is interposed between the maxilla and quadrate 
bone. The atlas (13) or first cervical vertebra articulates 
anteriorly with the condyle of the occipital bone and posteriorly 
with the axis. 

There are fourteen cervical vertebrae in the fowl, fifteen in 
the duck, eighteen in the goose and twelve in the pigeon. 

The long column of cervical or neck vertebrae serves as a 
sort of balancing pole, and by changing in form and direction 
it varies the center of gravity. In flying, the bird changes 
the center of gravity from the region over the legs to the 
region of the wings. When at rest the head and neck are 
thrown backwards, carrying the center of gravity back over 
the legs. The first cervical vertebra is the atlas and is the 
smallest of the vertebrae. It is ring-shaped and articulates 
anteriorly with the single condyle of the occipital bone. This 
anterior articular surface is half-moon shaped and forms a 
deep articular joint called a ball and socket joint. This type 
of joint makes possible, movements in all directions. The 
condyle of the occiput also touches an articular end of the 
odontoid process of the axis or second cervical vertebra. Pos- 
teriorly there are found two small lateral wings possessing 
articular facets which articulate with similar facets on the 
lateral wings of the axis. The posterior part of the body is 
provided with an articular facet which articulates with a sim- 
ilar articular surface on the anterior portion of the body of 
the axis. 

The body of each succeeding vertebra articulates with the 
one immediately anterior and posterior to it. Between each 
two is a pad of fibro-cartilage. Above these bodies and below 
the neural spines, we find a large neural canal which is occu- 
pied by the spinal cord. Between each two vertebral seg- 
ments in the cervical region, the neural canal is exposed, due 
to the neural arches incompletely bridging the canal in that 
location. This space is protected or bridged over by an inter- 
vertebral ligament. 

The dorsal spines of the cervical vertebrae are very small, 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 19 

the ventral are more distinct. The anterior obhque spines are 
provided on their under surface with articular facets, which 
articulate with similar articular facets on the upper side of 
the posterior obhque process of the vertebral segment in front. 
The ventral spine on the last cervical segment is well devel- 
oped. The transverse processes on either side of the cervical 
vertebra are penetrated by a vertebral foramen. Through 
each of this series of foramina passes a vetrebral artery, ver- 
tebral vein, and a spinal nerve. The transverse processes of 
the last cervical vertebra are provided with ridges and excava- 
tions for muscular and tendinous attachments. 

THE TRUNK 

(The numbers refer to Fig. 1.) 

The dorsal or thoracic vertebrae form the roof of the chest, 
cavity (23) number seven in the fowl and pigeon, and 
nine in the duck and goose. These bones are usually fused 
or consolidated, giving great support and stability to the wings. 
The dorsal vertebral region is short. The first and sixth ver- 
tebrae articulate similar to the cervical vertebrae, that is, by 
the bodies and transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae 
from the second to the sixth ; are well developed and bridged 
over with a thin wing of bone. The ventral spines are well 
developed and are partly fused to form a continuous ridge. 

In the bird, the lumbar and sacral vertebrae are consoli- 
dated. In the embryo there are fourteen distinct vertebrae 
which soon consolidate with each other and with the ribs. 
With these vertebral segments are fused the last dorsal and 
first coccygeal vertebral segments. This fusion is so complete 
that the segments are indicated only by the intervertebral 
foramina through which the spinal nerves extend. This fused 
lumbosacral region forms the roof of the pelvic region. The 
lumbosacral vertebrae and ilia are fused. The dorsal spines 
of the vertebral segments are indicated only in the anterior 
portion. 

The joints of the coccygeal or caudal vertebrae (27) are 
freely movable since in the birds of flight the tail is used as 
a rudder. The terminal bone (28) is called the ploughshare 
bone. 

There are seven coccygeal or tail vertebrae. The last seg- 
ment is the larger and is supposed to have originated from the 
fusion of several segments. It is shaped like a ploughshare 
and is called the pygostyle. It supports that part which gives 
rise to the twelve main tail feathers. 

The ribs are divided into the true and the false. 



20 POULTRY DISEASES 

The true ribs articulate with the sternum or breast-bone by 
means of an intermediate bone. The false ribs do not articu- 
late with the sternum, but are floating. 

The first rib articulates with the quadrate portion of the 
last cervical vertebra and the first dorsal segment. The last 
rib articulates with the under side of the ilium at its anterior 
alar portion. This rib is situated similar to the true ribs, 
but instead of articulating directly with the sternum the sec- 
ond portion lies against the second portion of the rib just 
anterior to it. The rib is provided with two articular facets 
on the dorsal vertebra. The true rib is called a sternal rib, 
and each succeeding sternal rib is longer than the one preced- 
ing it. Nearer and nearer these ribs assume a horizontal posi- 
tion. The proximal end of the sternal rib articulates with the 
distal end of the vertebral rib. The sternal end is provided 
with two small ridges. 

From the posterior border of the second, third, fourth and 
fifth vertebral ribs and near their middles, are flat uncinate or 
hook-like bony processes projecting upward and forward over- 
lying the succeeding ribs, giving greater stability to the thorax. 
These processes are absent from the first and the last tw^o 
ribs. The vertebral portion of the rib (32) articulates infe- 
riorly with the sternal portion (41) joining it to the sternum 
or breast-bone, with which it articulates. The two portions 
of the rib are joined by a diarthrodial articulation. 

The sternum or breast-bone is a large, four-sided plate of 
bone, the posterior portion of which overlaps the ribs on the 
outer side. On the inferior portion of the sternum there is 
a leaf-like ridge called the crista sterna or breast ridge, com- 
monly known as the keel. This bony expansion gives a greater 
surface for the attachment of muscles. 

The sides are provided with an external and an internal 
process forming an internal and an external notch. These 
notches are bridged over by a broad ligament, to which the 
breast muscles are attached. In the poor flyers, as the fowls, 
these notches are large. The sternal end posteriorly is called 
the xiphoid process, is pointed, and in the young fowl consists 
of cartilage, but in the mature bird become bony. Anteriorly, 
the breast-bone is i)rovided with lateral external processes, the 
costal processes. In the center of the anterior part is the 
episternal process. 

THE LIMBS 

The OS scapulare or scapula (24), is elongated, narrow and 
presents smooth surfaces. Anteriorly, it forms a portion of 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 21 

the glenoid or shoulder joint cavity and is tniited to the fork 
of the coracoid by means of hbro-cartilage. 

The OS clavicula or collar-bone, often called the wish-bone 
(33), terminates below into an enlargement, the hypocledium 
(57), and is attached to the breast-bone by means of a liga- 
ment, the clavicnlo-sternal ligament. The superior extremity 
of the clavicle rests within and opposite the glenoid cavity, 
against the scapula (24) and coracoid (34). These three 
bones form a passageway through which extends the tendon 
of the levator muscles of the wing. This bone is called the 
furculum or ''wish-bone." Its forks are elastic and prevent 
the wings from coming toward each other during contraction 
of the depressor muscles. The os coracoideum (34), with 
the scapula, forms a glenoid cavity at its proximal or upper 
end, in which articulates the head of the humerus. Inferiorly, 
it articulates with the sternum or breast-bone. The os humeri 
(22) presents an articular head inferiorly, which occupies the 
glenoid cavity. It articulates superiorly with the radius (15) 
and ulna (21). The os ulnae, or ulnar bone, is larger than 
the radius. This bone articulates inferiorly with the humerus 
and superiorly with the carpus or wrist bones in company with 
the radius and is provided with a short olecranon inferiorly. 
The two bones meet at both extremities but bow apart in 
the middle. A strong ligament binds the ends so that prona- 
tion and supination is impossible. This limits movements to 
a gliding motion lengthwise. The carpus, or wrist, is made 
up of two bones, the os carpi radiale (14) and the os carpi 
ulnare (20). The metacarpus (17), consists originally of two 
bones but they are fused or consolidated at the extremities 
in the mature bird. The first digit, thumb or false wing-bone 
(16), is a styloid-shaped phalanx. The second, middle or 
large finger (18), consists of two phalanges, the second 
phalanx (34), and the third or rather ruidmentary finger (19). 

The pelvis is voluminous and very strong. The three pairs 
of bones composing it are: the ilium (25), the ischium (30) 
and the pubis (36). 

The ilium is long and is consolidated or fused with the last 
two dorsal, the lumbar and the sacral vertebrae. It is exca- 
vated on the internal face to receive the three lobes of the 
kidneys. 

The ischium forms a part of the sides of the pelvic cavity. 

The pubis, commonly called the lay-bone, is long and thin 
and extends along the inferior border of the ischium. 

The femur or thigh-bone (35), articulates superiorly with 
the ilium by the cotyloid or hip-joint cavity. This cavity is 



22 POULTRY DISEASES 

provided with a foramen or opening at its bottom which passes 
through the bone. The femur articulates inferiorly with the 
patella (46), the fibula (43), and with the tibia (47). The 
fibula articulates superiorly with the external condyle of the 
femur and the head of the tibia and inferiorly is consolidated 
with the tibia. The tibia, or drum-stick bone, terminates below 
in two condyles which articulate with the proximal end of 
the metatarsus (48). The metatarsus, or shank-bone, termi- 
nates inferiorly with three articular surfaces or facets which 
articulate with the three principal digits (49), (50) and (53). 
A conical eminence is noted near the inferior third which turns 
backward and is the base of the spur. Most fowls have four 
digits. The os metatarsale, or rudimentary digit (51), pro- 
jects backward and is made up of three phalanges. The sec- 
ond or internal toe (49), is provided with three phalanges; 
the third or middle toe (53), is provided with four phalanges, 
and the external or fourth toe (50), is provided with five 
phalanges. 

VISCERAL ANATOMY OF THE HEN 

THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 
The Mouth 

The mouth cavity is characterized by the changing of the 
jaw-bones into a beak. There are no teeth. The tongue is 
shaped like an Indian arrowhead, with prominent, rather hard 
and sharp-pointed papillae, along its posterior border. 

The beak is divided into an upper and a lower portion. The 
upper portion of the beak is provided with sharp free edges. 
There are no lips or cheeks. The vipper jaw forms the base 
of the upper portion of the beak, and the lower jaw forms 
the base of the lower portion of the beak. The beak is covered 
by a continuation of the epidermis. The beak is formed of 
horn-like material that is rather hard and resists wear to 
which it is subjected. 

In many water birds, as geese and ducks, a thin dermoid 
structure is formed over the edges of the beak, in which 
numerous branches of the trigeminus or fifth pair of cranial 
nerves terminate in taste-buds. 

In chickens, the beak terminates in a sharp point, while 
in water fowls, as geese and ducks, the beak is flat, spatula- 
like, and grooved transversely at its free margin. The roof 
of the mouth (hard palate), is provided with a slit that 
extends antero-posteriorly, and is about one inch in length; 
this is the i)osteri()r nares or opening of the nasal passage into 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



23 



the throat. There are, on the hard palate, four or more cross- 
bars, each of which is provided with hard fiUform papillae 
that point backward. The tongue presents a flat surface supe- 
riorly, and is covered by a thick strata of corneous epithehum. 
The upper or dorsal surface is provided with many small fili- 
form papillae, that point backward. The body of the tongue 
is made up of muscles and connective tissue. The tongue of 
swimming birds is thinner than that of chickens. The tongue 
is an organ possessing both of the senses, taste and touch. 
The transverse row of filiform papillae of the posterior por- 
tion of the roof of the mouth marks the border between the 
oral and pharyngeal cavities. Both palatine and sublingual 
salivary glands are present. The parotid and submaxillary 
when present in birds are rudimentary. They have ducts or 
canals through which their secretions are discharged into the 
mouth. 

The Pharynx 

The mouth cavity terminates iu the pharynx, or throat. The 
pharynx is covered by a mucous membrane. There is a trans- 
verse ridge, provided with filiform papillae pointing backward 
and located on the supero-posterior portion of the larynx that 
marks the posterior edge of the pharynx. 




vV ^^^ 



Fig. 3. Visceral Organs of the Right Side of the Fowl. 

The right abdominal and thoracic walls have been removed; 6, duodenal loop; 
7, pancreas; 8, small intestine; 10, rectum; 11, caeca; 12, right lung; 12a, riglit 
lobe of liver; 13, base of heart; 15, kidney; 16, ends of the broken ribs; 17, upper 
part of the cotyloid or hip joint cavity; 18, tire gall bladder located on the right 
lobe of the liver. The gizzard js not visible from the right side. 



24 



POULTRY DISEASES 



The pharynx communicates anteriorly with the mouth cav- 
ity and posteriorly with the esophagus and larynx. 

The Esophagus 

The esophagus is a muscular tube lying posterior to the 
trachea. The esophagus is divided into two parts, a first por- 
tion and a second portion. The first portion passes over to 
the right side as it reaches the anterior surface of the breast, 
where it forms an expansion called the crop. The second por- 
tion, springing from the under side of the crop, enters the 
thorax through the anterior thoracic opening and occupies 
a space between the lungs and passes over the base of the 




Fig. 4. Visceral Organs of the Left Side of the Fowl. 
The left abdominal and thoracic walls have been removed; 4, proventriculus or 
glandular stomacli ; 5, gizzard; 6, extreme end of duodenal loop; 7, pancreas; 
8, small intestine; 12, left lung (it v^'ill be noted that the lungs occupy the superior 
part of the thoracic cavity and that there is no distinct pleural sac, but that the 
lungs puslr u]) between the ribs; in fact, the ribs are covered on the inner and 
lateral sides by the lungs); 12a, left lobe of the liver; 13, base of the heart; 
17, hip joint just above the kidney; 18, diaphragm. 



heart. vSome areas of the mucous membrane of the crop con- 
tain mucous glands. The crop is globular and simple in the 
fowl, fusiform in the goose and duck, and in the pigeon forms 
two symmetrical sacs. In the pigeon, during and shortly after 
hatching time, in both sexes, it ]M-oduces a milky fluid which 
the pigeon mixes with grain and serves as nourishment for 
the young. The second portion of the esophagus terminates 
in the proventriculus or glandular stomach. 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



25 



The Stomach 

Some anatomists call the proventriculiis, the pars glandularis 
and the gizzard, the pars muscularis. The pars glandularis, or 
proventriculus, lies dorsal to, and midway between, the two 
lobes of the liver, taking an oblique course to the left. It 
terminates in the gizzard. Its mucous surface is studded by 
papilla-like projections, which furnish openings to glands of 
the type of those in the fundus of the stomach of the horse 
and other quadrupeds. 

The Gizzard 

The gizzard, or pars muscularis, is round, muscular and flat- 
tened laterally and lies to the right and posterior to the proven- 




FiG. 5. Section Through the Median Line of a Two-Pound Pullet. 

1, stump of the first portion of the esophagus; 2, left wall of the crop; 3, sec- 
ond ])ortion of the esophagus located just below the l^odies of the vertebrae; 
4, proventriculus lying antero-laterally to the gizzard, superoposteriorly to the liver, 
and to the left of the spleen; 5, gizzard; i6, duodenal loop; 5a and 6a, points where 
duodenal loop has been cut away; 7. pancreas: 8, floating portion of small intestine; 
9, ovary; 10, rectum; 11, caeca; 12a, liver; 13, heart; 14, spleen. 



triculus. It lies behind and partly between the lobes of the 
liver and consists of a hollow organ. It is somewhat con- 
tracted at the sides and stands obliquely in the abdominal 
cavity. In gramniverous birds the walls are very thick, being 
made up for the most part of two powerful muscles. The 
cavity is lined with a very thick stratified epithelium. The 
heavy horny pads form grinding surfaces. Certain portions 



26 POULTRY DISEASES 

of the mucous lining contain glands which by some anatomists 
have been regarded as modified pyloric glands of mammals. 

The small intestine originates on the same side of the gizzard 
that the proventriculus enters and about one-half inch distant. 

The Small Intestine 
The first portion of the small intestine is called the duo- 
dcnuui, which forms a long loop, called the duodenal loop. 
This loop passes obliquely to the right side and proceeds along 
the outer right abdominal wall, where the terminal portion 
of the loop rests. The remaining portion of the small intes- 
tine forms a thick coil supported by a mesentery and occupies 
the space between the two large abdominal air sacs. 

The Large Intestine 

The large intestine is very short. The large intestine, in 
fact, in the fowl, is the rectum or straight gut. At the point 
where the small intestine terminates in the large intestine, 
there is given off two long blind pouches — the caeca. These 
blind pouches are directed toward the head and then double 
backward toward the posterior abdominal quadrant. The 
caeca in the pigeon, are comparatively short, while in fowls, 
ducks and geese, as well as in turkeys, they are quite long. 
The major portion of the caecum is narrow, becoming larger 
in calibre at the blind extremity and constricted at its point 
of origin. From the point of origin of the large intestine, it 
extends backward in a straight line just under the bodies of 
the vertebrae and terminating in the cloaca. 

The entire length of the alimentary tract in fowls is five to 
six times, and in geese and ducks, four to five times, the length 
of the body. 

The Cloaca 

The cloaca, meaning cesspool, is a sacculation with greater 
diameter than the large intestine and communicating anteriorly 
with the large intestine and opens to the external world through 
the anus. In this receptacle, everything is dumped. It 
receives the feces, urinary secretion and the egg from the ovi- 
duct of the female. The vas deferens of the male opens 
through a papilla on the anal mucous membrane. At the point 
where the large intestine or rectum empties into the cloaca, 
there is a strong, oblique fold of mucous membrane. The 
ureters empty at the summit of small papillae midway between 
the vas deferi. The mouth of the oviduct is represented 
by a slit. In the males of geese, ducks and swans, there is 
present a copulatory organ, somewhat re'sembling the penis 
of mammals. 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



27 



A small round pear-shaped sac, called the bursa of Fabricus, 
is located in the dorsal or top wall of the cloaca. The cavity 
communicates, through a short canal, with the posterior bor- 
der of the cloaca close to the anal wall. The mucous mem- 
brane lining the bursa contains glands. The bursa is large 
in the young, but decreases in size with age. It apparently 
reaches its greatest size in chickens at about four months of 
age, at which time it may measure two or three centimeters 
by one and one-half centimeters. By ten or eleven months 
of age, it has become quite rudimentary. Its function is not 
known. Glands similar to those of mammals are located in 
the intestine. 

The Liver 

The liver is the largest gland in the body and consists of 
two lobes — a right and a left. The right lobe is somewhat 




Fig. 6. Transverse Section Through the Thoracic Region, Looking Backward. 

1, spinal cord; 2, esophagus; 3, trachea; 4, skin; 5, pectoral muscle; 6, lungs; 
7, heart; 8, breast bone; 10, liver. 



larger than the left, in most birds, excej^t in the turkey and 
guinea. The liver lies behind the heart, the apex of which 
extends into the fissure between the anterior portion of its 
two lobes. The inferior surface of the liver is convex and 
covered by a layer of visceral peritoneum. The two lobes are 
held together b}^ a small ligament. A filiform ligament extends 
from the inner surface of the sternum and becomes lost in the 



28 POULTRY DISEASES 

serous covering of the liver. This Hgament assists in holding 
the liver in joosition. Most species of birds are provided w^ith 
a gall Ijladder, which is located on the posterior surface of 
the right lobe of the liver. In birds without a gall bladder, 
as pigeons and guineas, the main gall ducts of the two lobes 
of the liver unite and empty as one duct into the duodenum. 
In birds having a gall bladder, the ductus hepaticus passes 
from the left lobe of the liver to the duodenum, while the bile 
from the right lobe empties into the gall bladder, from whence 
the gall is carried to the duodenum through the ductus cysticus. 
In fowls, the ducts of the liver and pancreas empty into the 
duodenum in the following order : First, the ductus pancrea- 
ticus, from the pancreas ; second, the ductus hepaticus, directly 
from the left lobe of the liver ; and, third, the ductus cysticus, 
from the gall bladder of the right lobe of the liver. In ducks, 
the ductus hepaticus and the ductus cysticus are united. This 
common duct empties into the duodenum near the pylorus. The 
two branches of the pancreatic duct empty close behind the 
hepatic duct. In the pigeon, the ductus hepaticus is double and 
extends from the left lobe, while a third duct carries the bile 
from the right lobe. There are apparently three pancreatic 
ducts in this species. 

The Pancreas 

The pancreas is a pale, long, yellowish, lobulated gland, 
sometimes called the abdominal salivary gland, and lies 
between the two branches of the long duodenal loop. In some 
species of birds, the gland is divided into three distinct lobes, 
each provided with its own duct, which carries the secretion 
to the duodenum. 

The Spleen 

The spleen of the fowl is reddish-brown in color, shaped 
like a horse chestnut and lies to the right in an angle formed 
by the proventriculus, liver and gizzard. Its shape varies in 
the different species of birds. In some it is globular, while 
in others, it is lenticular. 

THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 
The Nasal Cavities 

The nasal cavities in the bird are short and narrow. The 
two nasal ])assages are se])arated by a cartilaginous se])tum and, 
in ])art, by a bony wall. In ducks and geese the external nasal 
oi)ening is located toward the base of the beak. Through the 
openings, one can see through from one nostril to the other 
(nares perviae). The external openings are either round or 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 29 

slit-like. They are often surrounded by a thin dermoid struc- 
ture and a border of peculiar feathers. Each nostril is pro- 
vided with three turbinated bones. The middle turbinated 
bone is the largest and the upper one the smallest. A small, 
flat gland, peculiar to birds (fowls, ducks and geese), lies on 
the frontal bone in close proximity to the mesial corner of the 
eye. A duct extends from this gland forward and empties into 
the nostrils. The posterior nares, or posterior nose opening, 
communicates with the mouth cavity through a slit-like open- 
ing in the roof of the mouth. 

The Larynx 

The superior larynx is a musculo-cartilaginous valve located 
at the superior extremity of the trachea and receives the air 
from the nostrils and pharynx. The bird is not provided with 
an epiglottis as observed in mammals. A ring-like cartilage, 
the cricoid, is located at the base of the larynx. This car- 
tilage forms the principal support. It is divided into four 
parts, namely, two side parts, one unequal ventral part and an 
unequal dorsal part. Some of these parts at times and in some 
species of birds, are fused. The arytenoid cartilages, three in 
number, are flexible and joined to the superior part of the 
cricoid. These cartilages bound supero-posteriorly the entrance 
of the larynx. At times, the arytenoids are partially bony. 

The walls of the superior larynx are smooth and are not 
provided with vocal cords. This organ is sometimes called 
the larynx cranialis, in contradistinction to the true larynx or 
larynx caudalis. The true larynx is located at the bifurcation 
of the trachea into the right and left bronchi ; it is provided 
with delicate vocal cords. This organ is absent in voiceless 
birds. It is sometimes called the larynx bronchio-trachealis. 
In fowls, it is flattened laterally. The last rings lie close 
together in fowls, but are connected in pigeons and more or 
less completely fused in geese. This structure is called the 
tympanum or drum. A bony, arrow-like passage is found 
between the tympanum and the opening into the bronchi. This 
bears a small half-moon-shaped fold, which is concave from 
above. On either side of this passageway, there is located an 
elastic membrane, the membrana tympaniformis interna, which 
forms the inner wall of the adjacent bronchus. Laterally and 
between the typmpanum and the two bronchial rings on either 
side, there is a membrane called the membrana tympaniformis 
externa. Singing birds possess a well-developed muscle which 
in fowls, ducks and geese is rudimentary. In the water fowls, 
the inferior extremity, is enlarged into a large sac, called the 



30 POULTRY DISEASES 

bulla tympaniformis. The left bronchus has a perceptible 
share in the formation of this bulla. This bulla is a resonance 
box. 

The Trachea 

The trachea varies in length, according to the kind of bird 
and length of neck. It is made up of closed rings, round in 
shape and connected by short connecting bands or ligaments. 
In fowls, these rings are cartilaginous, while in singing birds 
they may be partially bony. The trachea is moved by means 
of two lateral tracheal muscles. 

The Lungs 

The lungs are two in number, red to pink in color and firmly 
connected with the costal or inner chest wall. The ribs indent 
the lungs, allowing a part of the outer surface to project 
slightly between them. The ventral free surface is turned 
toward the body cavity and is covered by the rudimentary dia- 
phragm. The rudimentary diaphragm contains some mus- 
cular structure and is attached to the ribs and vertebrae. The 
pointed anterior lobe extends to the first rib. The posterior 
part terminates in a broad surface and extends back as far as 
the anterior end of the kidneys. The bronchi communicate 
with the air sacs by openings from the posterior border. The 
two bronchi are broadened after they enter the lungs, which 
is at the beginning of the second, third and on the ventral 
surface. They lose their cartilaginous rings and continue as 
duct-like channels to the extreme posterior edge, where they 
terminate into cartilaginous rings called the ostium caudale, 
from w^hich point they communicate with the ventral or large 
abdominal air sacs. Each bronchus gives off a ventral bron- 
chus, called the bronchus diaphragmaticus caudalis, through 
which the air is conducted to the ostium intermedium caudale 
and into the caudal cella thoracica diaphragmatica. Each bron- 
chus gives ofT lateral bronchi which extend to the ventral sur- 
face of the lung. They form blind pouches or air sacs (alve- 
oli) near the surface of the lung. 

Two bronchial systems take their origin from the main 
bronchus, the ventral and the dorsal. The bronchus clavicu- 
laris arises from the dorso-medial wall of the main bronchus, 
a short distance after it enters the lung and before it broadens 
out. This bronchus gives ofT a large branch, called the bron- 
chus cervicalis. It bends round the base of the main bronchus 
and the pulmonary artery and supplies the dorsal surface of 
the lung, and through the ostium claviculare it supplies air to 
the air sacs on the respective side (dorsal air sac). It termi- 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 31 

nates close to the middle of the lung, where it communicates, 
through a small opening, with the diaphragmatic air sac. 

The bronchus cervicalis extends forward in the direction of 
the original trunk and anteriorly communicates with . the cer- 
vical air sac through the opening the ostium cervicale. 

There is also given off from the main bronchus the bronchus 
cervicalis, dorsalis and medialis. The first extends with a few 
bronchi into the clavicular air sac. The bronchus dia- 
phragmaticus cranialis extends laterally, dorsally and medially, 
and terminates in the thoracic air sac through the ostium inter- 
medium craniale. The bronchus caudalis originates from the 
dorso-median w^all and extends to the caudal and middle por- 
tions of the lung. There is given off another bronchus called 
the bronchus lateralis from this lateral bronchus. 

There extends from the main bronchus several bronchi in 
the medial half of the lung. There are six to ten dorsal 
bronchi (bronchi dorsales). Numerous perpendicular, narrow, 
thick-walled tubes lying close to each other are given off from 
the dorsal wall of the main bronchus and other bronchi men- 
tioned. These tubes have been called the "lung pipes," which 
by lateral pressure become five- or six-sided tubes. The mass 
of the lungs are made up of these tubes. These tubes termi- 
nate near the surface of the lung. The ends of these tubes, 
which lie at right angles to the main channel, form sacculations 
somewhat simulating the air sacs of mammals. Connective 
tissue, through which pass blood vessels and nerves,- fill in the 
space between these lung tubules. 

The Air Sacs 

The air sacs are bladder-like structures with delicate walls. 
The air sacs are lined with a mucous membrane which is a 
continuation of the mucous membrane of the bronchi. The 
air sacs are connected with the bronchial tubes, but do not 
communicate with each other. They also communicate with 
air spaces in many of the bones of the trunk and limbs. Bron- 
chial tubes extending to the surface of the lung communicate 
directly with these air sacs. The air sacs send extensions into 
the bones and line the walls of these air spaces. These air 
spaces, some of which are of considerable size, add to the 
bulk of the body of the bird without increasing its weight. 
They reach their highest state of development in the fliers 
and swimmers and are less developed in running birds. There 
are nine air sacs, as follows : The anterior thoracic air sac, 
from which arises the axillary extension which goes into the 
humerus, breast-bone and ribs. This is the only air sac that 



32 POULTRY DISEASES 

is single, the balance existing in pairs. The cervical air sacs 
lie on the cervical vertebrae and send extensions into the 
cervical vertebrae. The infero-posterior thoracic air sacs, also 
called the ventral, phrenic, or diaphragmatic. The supero- 
posterior thoracic air sacs, also called the dorsal, phrenic, or 
diaphragmatic. These latter two pairs of air sacs lie between 
the lungs and heart and the abdominal viscera at the rudimen- 
tary diaphragm and aid in keeping separate the thoracic and 
abdominal viscera. The abdominal air sacs, which are by far 
the larger of all the air sacs, extend from the anterior to near 
the posterior border of the abdominal cavity. Part of the 
abdominal viscera lies between them. They extend to the 
posterior part of the pelvis and the thigh bones. 

The air spaces of the bones of the head are supplied by air 
by extensions from the eustachian tube. 

The Thymus Gland 

The thymus gland is present in young birds and is located 
along eacn jugular vein in the neck. This gland is elongated 
and lobulated. In old birds, it is lobulated. 

The Carotid Glands 

The carotid glands, two in number, are round or oblong 
glands abundantly supplied by blood vessels and lie at the 
base of the carotid arteries. 

The Adrenal Glands 

The adrenal glands are small reddish-like bodies which lie 
at the anterior end of the kidneys. They produce an internal 
secretion which has an effect upon the circulation. 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 

The circulatory systems consist of two, namely : the blood 
I'ascular system and the lymph vascular system. 

The Blood Vascular System 

The blood vascular system consists of the heart, the pro- 
pelling engine ; the arteries extending from the heart, the veins, 
and the capillaries connecting the arteries and the veins. 

The heart is located in the thoracic cavity with the base 
directed upward and forward. The apex is directed downward 
and backward and lies in the anterior j^ortion of the fissure 
formed by the two lobes of the liver. It is surrounded by a 
pericardial sac, which is often attached by means of connec- 
tive tissue to the adjacent air sac. The structure of the heart 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 33 

is similar to that of mammals, except that the tricuspid valves 
of the right auriculo-ventricular opening are replaced with a 
strong double muscular plate which extends from the outer 
chamber wall. The papillary muscles are absent in the right 
chamber. The aorta is given off from the left ventricle and 
the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle as in mammals. 
The bicuspid valve frequently is provided with three points. 
The venae cavae, two anterior and one posterior, empty into 
the right auricle. The pulmonary veins empty through one 
common opening into the left auricle. 




Fig. 7. Heart of Fowl with Its Main Branches. 
1, carotid artery; 2, sterno-clavicularis artery; 3, axillary artery; 4, thoracic 
cranialis artery; 5, thoracic caudalis artery; 6, posterior aorta; LA, right auricle. 
RA, left auricle; LV, right ventricle; RV, left ventricle. 

The Structure of the blood vessels are the same as in mam- 
mals. The pulmonary artery emerges from the right ventricle, 
is short and divides into a right and a left branch, which go to 
the respective lungs. 

The aorta emerges from the left ventricle, is short and gives 
ofif the right and the left coronaries and bifurcates into the 
brachiocephalic dexter, the right branch, and the brachioce- 
phalic sinister, the left branch. The brachiocephalic dexter 
gives off the posterior aorta which winds round the right 
bronchus and passes along the lower portions of the vertebrae. 
It then bifurcates to form the right carotid and right subclavian 
arteries. The brachiocephalic sinister bifurcates into the left 
carotid and the left subclavian arteries. 

In some species of birds, the right and the left carotids 
spring from a common trunk called the carotis primaria. The 
carotid arteries, as they pass up the neck, give off branches 
to the adjacent parts. A vertebral artery is given off, which 
supplies the vertebrae. At the level of the head, each carotid 
artery divides into two branches, one supplying the brain, eye- 
ball and adjacent parts, and the other the remainder of the 
cranial structures. The two subclavian arteries each give off 



34 POULTRY DISEASES 

a sterno-claviciilaris which siippHes the anterior sternal region 
up to the shoulder, where it divides into two arteries, which 
supply the breast and the arm. The thoracic cranialis is also 
given off from the brachio-cephalic as well as the thoracic 
caudalis, the latter supplying the large breast muscle. At 
about this point, there is also a branch, the internal mammary, 
given off and which follows along the inner border of the 
sternum. The axillary artery may be considered a continua- 
tion of the brachiocephalic ; it supplies the muscles of the wing. 

The posterior aorta extends along the lower borders of the 
vertebrae as far as the pelvis. It gives off on its way inter- 
costals, which pass, one along the posterior border of each 
rib, and are disposed of similar to those of mammals. It also 
gives off a celiac axis supplying the stomach, liver, and spleen, 
two mesenteric branches, the mesentericus cranialis or anterior 
mesenteric, and the posterior mesenteric or mesentericus cau- 
dalis, supplying the mesentery and small intestine. The pos- 
terior aorta also gives off lumbar arteries, and renals, the latter 
supplying the kidneys, also, in the male, arteries to the testes, 
called the testicular artery ; and in the female the ovarian, sup- 
plying the ovary. At the hind extremities there is given off the 
external iliac at a line near the juncture of the anterior and 
middle thirds of the kidney. This supplies the pelvic and outer 
muscles of that region. The aorta divides into two branches, 
the ischiatica and also sends an artery back along the under 
side of the caudal vertebrae, the middle sacral. The ischial 
artery, in company with the ischial nerve, passes through the 
foramen ischiaticum, giving off branches to the muscles of 
that region. 

The pulmonary veins, two in number, originate from a short 
stem, the pulmonary artery, which springs from the right ven- 
tricle. These veins furnish the lungs with functional blood, 
which is returned to the heart through pulmonary veins enter- 
ing the left auricle. 

There are three venous trunks carrying the venous blood 
from the body and extremities. These are the left and the 
right anterior vena cava, the vena cava cranialis and the pos- 
terior vena cava, the vena cava caudalis. These three vessels 
empty into the right auricle. Each anterior vena cava receives 
the jugular and subclavian vein of its respective side. The 
right jugular is larger than the left. They are located ventrally 
to the skull, where they anastamose through an oblique vein. 
At the inferior portion they receive branches from the head, 
the cranial veins, also neck and back veins. The subclavian 
vein receives the blood from the veins of the breast and wing, 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



35 



the sterno-clavicularis, and the thoracic-craniahs, caudalis and 
axillary veins. The subclavian empties into the anterior vena 
cava. 

The posterior vena cava is short and receives the blood from 
the external and internal iliacs, hepatic, renal hypogastric and 
the coccygeal veins. It also receives the blood from the porta 
hepatis, which collects blood from the abdominal viscera, espe- 
cially the intestines. 

The Blood of the Normal Fowl 

The blood of the fowl is made up of organized and unorgan- 
ized parts. The unorganized part is the plasma and the organ- 




■ ^'g'* . _. 

Fig. 8. Blood Vessels of the Pelvis and Thigh of the Fowl. 
a, posterior aorta; a, b, external iliac artery; c, ischiatic artery; e, the ureter; 
f, the ischiatic nerve; g, the main artery of the thigh; Ir, the femoral vein; i, the 
internal iliac vein; j, the external iliac vein; k, the middle sacral artery. 



ized is the cells. The cells are of three kinds, namely : red 
l)lood cells or erythrocytes, white blood cells or leucocytes, and 
the thrombocytes, corresponding to the platelets of mammals. 
The red blood cells are elliptical-shaped with an elliptical- 
shaped nucleus located centrally. The red blood cells measure 
7x12 microns. The thrombocytes are oval with a round cen- 
trally located nucleus. There are several varieties of white 
blood cells, these are as follows : Mast cells or basophiles, 
eosinophiles, some of which contain round eosinophilic gran- 
ules and others rod-shaped eosinophilic bodies, these are all 



36 POULTRY DISEASES 

polymorphonuclear. There are also small and large lympho- 
cytes and mononuclear leucocytes. 

The red blood cells number about 3,500,000 per cmm., the 
white blood cells number 25,000 to 30,000 per cmm., and the 
thrombocytes about 50,000 per cmm. The lymphocytes con- 
stitute forty-five per cent, the large mononuclear leucocytes 
eighteen per cent, the polymorphonuclear leucocytes with 
eosinophile rods 30 per cent, polymorphonuclear leucocytes 
with eosinophile granules six per cent, and the mast cells one 
per cent. 

The Lymph Vascular System 

The lymph vessels collect lymph from the tissues of the body 
and, carrying it forward toward the head, finally empty it into 
the large veins shortly before they empty their contents into 
the heart. The lymph vessels are numerous. Those of the 
hind extremity empty into the veins on the border between the 
tail and the pelvis. There are very few lymph glands. At the 
entrance of the thoracic cavity there is located two or more 
small lymph glands. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

The nervous system consists of two parts, namely : the cere- 
brospinal system and the sympathetic system. The cerebro- 
spinal system includes the brain, spinal cord and the nerves 
that spring from them. The sympathetic system consists of 
a chain of ganglia or nerve centers that extend along either 
side of the spinal cord and give nerves to the viscera, blood 
vessels and other involuntary parts. 

The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three mem- 
branes as in mammals. The brain is divided into three parts, 
as follows : cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The 
pons varolii, well developed in mammals, is either lacking or 
consists of but a few narrow oblique fibers. The cerebrum is 
the fore part of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres, 
which are separated superiorly by a deep longitudinal fissure. 
In mammals, there are deep fissures or sulci and the greater 
the intelligence of the animal the deeper is the fissure. There 
are no fissures or convolutions in the fowl. The fissure later- 
alis is well marked and is located laterally about the posterior 
border of the anterior third of the cerebrum. The epiphysis, 
a small body, is located between the hemispheres and at the 
posterior portion of the longitudinal fissure. The olfactory 
nerve consists of two conical bodies projecting forward from 
between the anterior portion of the hemispheres. The hypo- 
physis or infundibulum, the cruri cerebri, and the optic chiasm 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 37 

are all similar to those of mammals. The corpus callosum is 
lacking or at most marked by only a few diagonal fibers. The 
hippocampus and the septum lucidum of mammals are lack- 
ing. The lateral sinuses are well developed. The lateral walls 
are thin and the gray matter is small in quantity. At the base 
of each of the sinuses there is found an eminence which cor- 
responds to the corpus striatum of mammals. At the postero- 
inferior portion of the cerebral hemispheres, there are round 
eminences called the sight eminences. They are bound on the 
dorsal side by the bridge of Sylvius. Their cavity communi- 
cates with the aqueductus cerebri, which connects the third 
and the fourth ventricles. 

The cranial nerves number twelve, as in mammals. The 
first cranial nerve is the olfactory and leaves the cranial cavity 
through a foramen which represents the perforated plate of 
mammals. It passes through the dorso-median part of the 
eye cavity, thence into the nasal cavity, where its fibers termi- 
nate in the mucous membrane. t 

The second cranial nerve is the optic nerve, which forms 
the chiasm by crossing at the base of the brain. At this X, 
the two nerves of sight cross. The motores oculorum, is the 
third pair of cranial nerves and supplies impulses to the mus- 
cles of the eye. The fourth cranial netve is the pathetic, 
which supplies the superior oblique muscle of the eye. The 
fifth pair of cranial nerves is the trifacial, which is divided 
into three main branches that supply the muscles of the head 
and the eyes. The sixth pair of cranial nerves is the abducens, 
which is distributed to the muscles of the eye. The seventh 
pair of cranial nerves represents the seventh and eighth of 
mammals, the facialis and acusticus. The facialis is distributed 
to the face, including the tongue, and the acusticus is distrib- 
uted to the internal ear and is the nerve of hearing. The 
ninth nerve is the glossopharyngeal and supplies the tongue 
and pharynx and gives fibers to the tenth pair of cranial nerves, 
which is the pneumogastric. The pneumogastric is sometimes 
called the vagus because it is a so-called wondering nerve in 
that it furnishes impulses to the neck, lungs, heart and some 
to the sympathetic system of the abdominal cavity. The 
eleventh pair of cranial nerves is the spinal accessory supply- 
ing nerves to the neck. The twelfth and last pair of cranial 
nerves is the hypoglossal, which supplies the tongue and other 
adjacent structures. 

The cerebellum or lesser brain is located in the posterior 
part of the cranial cavity. Numerous oblique fissures mark 
the upper surface, dividing it into a leaf-like structure. The 



38 



POULTRY DISEASES 



fourth ventricle is located under the cerebellum and on top 
of the medulla oblongata. Lateral pedicles attach the cerebel- 
lum to the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata broad- 
ens as it extends forward, being broader than the spinal cord. 
The medulla oblongata joins the spinal cord with the brain. 

The spinal cord terminates posteriorly in a thread-like ter- 
mination without forming a cauda equina as in mammals. 
There are dorsal and lumbar segments from which are given 
ofif nerves for the wings and the hind extremities. The dorsal 





Fig. 9. A, B and C. 
OF THE Fowl. 



Brain and Eyeball 
Natural Size. 



A — 1, olfactory nerves; 2, optic nerve; 
3, pituitary gland, slightly dislodged pos- 
teriorly; 4, optic lobes; 5, medulla oblon- 
f_ gata; 6, optic chiasm; 7, right cerebrum; 

8, eyeball; 9, sclera; 10, cornea, 
B — 1, optic nerve; 2, its sheath. 
C — 4, optic lobes; 5, medulla oblongata; 7a, right and 7b, left cerebral hemi- 
spheres; 8, cerebellum; 9, fissure longitudinalis; 10, fissure transversalis. 

segment is marked by an enlargement. The central canal, 
as wxU as the mode of entrance and exit of the fibers, is the 
same as in mammals. 

The number of nerves that are given off from the spinal 
cord depends upon the number of vertebral segments. The 
spinal nerves are given off in pairs ; each nerve originates from 
one dorsal and one ventral root, one nerve for each side of 
the body. The spinal ganglion is located on the dorsal root. 
Each sjMual nerve divides into a small dorsal nerve supplying 
the muscles and other structures in the region above the level 
of the s])inal column and a larger ventral branch supplying 
the body wall below the level. The spinal nerves have been 
placed in four groups, as follows : cervical, those of the neck ; 
dorsal, those of the back or chest region ; lumbo-sacral or 
those of the lumbar and sacral regions, and the caudal or those 
of the tail. The wings receive their nerve supply from the 
brachial plexus. The brachial plexus is made up of the last 
two or three cervical nerves and the first one or two dorsal 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 39 

nerves. The structures in the pelvic region are supplied from 
branches of the ventral divisions of the lumbo-sacral nerves. 
The nerves of the shoulder and pelvis are essentially the same 
as in mammals. The nerves of the skin and tail are small. 

The sympathetic nerves have their origin at the cranio-cer- 
vical ganglion, which lies at the base of the skull. From this 
ganglion, fine filaments are sent to most of the cranial nerves, 
as well as connecting branches. The sympathetic trunk extends 
along the cervical vertebra, occupying an oblique canal. It 
exchanges filaments with the cervical nerves. It continues on 
either side of the base of the vertebrae through the thoracic 
and abdominal cavities. Branches from these trunks go to 
form the splanchnic nerve system supplying the visceral organs 
of the abdominal cavity. The right and left trunks finally 
unite, forming the ganglion coccygeum or ganglion, which 
presides over the functions of the tail. 

THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE 
The Eyes 
The eyeballs of the bird are rather large for the size of the 
body. The sense of sight in birds is well developed. The eyes 
stand to the side of the head in domesticated birds. The 
orbital or eye cavities in which the eyeballs rest are separated 
laterally by a bony partition or septum. This is the septum 
interorbitale. The eyeball is not completely surrounded by 
bone. The lower eyelid is larger than the upper and often 
incloses a small cartilaginous plate. The lower eyelid is more 
freely movable than the upper. The third eyelid or mem- 
brana nictitans is well developed. Two special muscles operate 
this third eyelid. These are the pyramidalis and the quadratus. 
The third eyelid is located in the inner angle or canthus of 
the eye and the muscles operating it pull it over the eyeball 
and again retract it. There are no tarsal glands as in mam- 
mals. The muscles of the eyelids are of the smooth variety 
and in the place of eyelashes, there may be found minute 
feathers. The feather follicles from which the feathers are 
developed are similar to the hair follicles of mammals. The 
gland of the eyelid lies on the inner or nasal side and is often 
larger than the lacrimal or tear gland. Its secretion is poured 
out onto the third eyelid. The tear or lacrimal gland lies in 
the angle close to the temple. The tear gland is small and 
has one or more ducts emptying into the conjunctival sac at 
the temple side of the eyeball. The lacrimal sac and lacrimal 
duct carrying: tears to the nasal cavity are similar to those of 
mammals. The eyeball is made up of three coverings. The 
cornea, or front part, through which the bird sees, covers the 



40 POULTRY DISEASES 

anterior part of the eye and the sclera, the outer remaining 
portion of the eyeball. The sclera is made up of small over- 
lapping scales, connective tissue and a cartilaginous cup extend- 
ing from the optic nerve at the posterior pole to the equator 
of the globe. The scleral ring is at the anterior border of 
this cartilage. The anterior chamber of the eye is large. The 
middle layer of the posterior portion of the eyeball is called 
the choroid, and is rich in blood vessels and pigment. The 
retina forms the inner coat and is rich in a dark pigment. The 
ciliary body consists of many folds. The ciliary muscle con- 
sists of oblique fibers arranged in three bundles. Numerous 
wedge-shaped folds rich in blood vessels and containing pig- 
ment are found at the point of entrance of the optic nerve. 
In some birds, these folds extend forward and are attached 
to the lense capsule. The iris forms a partition between the 
anterior and posterior chambers, and is perforated in the cen- 
ter with a round hole, the pupillary opening, through which 
hole the bird sees. The iris on the posterior or lens side, 
contains a dark pigment which gives color to the eye. In 
most breeds and in the present-day fowls ancestor, the Gallus 
Bankiva, the pigment is red. The yellow coloration of the 
eye is caused by lipochrome, a fat pigment. This iris is made 
up of circular and of longitudinal muscles which govern the 
size of the pupillary opening. The circular muscles contract- 
ing make the opening smaller and the longitudinal muscular 
fibers contracting and the circular fibers relaxing make the 
opening larger. The size of the opening is governed by the 
brightness of the light the bird happens to be in. The lining 
of the vitreous or most posterior chamber does not contain 
blood vessels and its structure is similar to that of mammals. 
The crystalline lens in birds is rather flattened on the anterior 
side except in birds of nocturnal habits, in which it is very 
convex. The lens of birds dififers from the lens of mam- 
mals, in that the epithelium develops into fibers in the equa- 
torial portion and are arranged almost perpendicular to the 
axis of the eyeball. These are located near the ring pads. The 
portion for the passage of light is relatively small. 

The Organs of Hearing 

The ear in mammals, with which we compare that of birds, 
consists of an outer, a middle and an internal ear. The outer 
ear is lacking in birds. A skin fold surrounds the external 
opening of the ear in the fowl and is called the ear lobe. It 
also may be surrounded and ])artially covered by a peculiarly 
formed tuft of feathers. The outer canal is short and contains 
an ear gland. This canal is lined with the continuation of the 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



41 



skin and connects with the ear drum. The tympanic mem- 
brane is convex externally and is stretched in a bony ring. 
The ear drum forms an irregular cavity which is in relation 
to the air cavities of the skull and with the bony and cartilagi- 
nous ear trumj^et in connection with the pharyngeal cavity. 
The columella only is present, which may be compared to the 
stirrup of mammals. Therefore, instead of three ear bones as 
in mammals, there is but one. The inner ear consists of a 
bony labyrinth surrounded by a spongy bone substance. In 
it is distinguished the vestibule, the three half -circled canals 
of the cochlea. The vestibule is a small irregular cavity wdiich 
communicates with the cochlea and through the fenestra vesti- 
bularis with the drum cavity. The endolymph of the vestibule 
contains microscopic crystals of calcium carbonate. The semi- 
circular canals are relatively larger and thicker-walled than in 
mammals. The ampullae are the upper and back canals with 
bony walls. The cochlea is a tube thinly covered at the blind 
end and contains the cuticular cochlea. At its point it is 
broadened for the formation of the lagena. The cavity of the 
cochlea is divided by the spiral walls, the scala vestibuli and 
the scala tympani. These walls are visible in the vestibulum 
so that they may be seen at the beginning of the cochlea. 




Fig. 10. Section Through the Eye 
OF A Hen. 
1, cornea; 2, anterior chamber; 3, 
posterior chamber; 4, vitreous cham- 
ber; .S iris: 6. retina; 7. ch(irMd 
coat; 8, optic nerve; 9, sclerotic coat; 
10, scleral ring; 11, crystalline lens; 
12, pecten; 13, corpus ciliaris. 




Fig. 11. Cochlear Labyrinth of a 
Hen 
1, vestibule; 2, semicircular canals; 
3, ampullae; 4, cochlea; 5, fenestra 
vestibularis; 6, tenestra coclilearis. 



The Organs of Smell 

The olfactory nerve is the organ of smell. After emerging 
from the cranium through the olfactory foramen, the olfactory 
nerve passes down and spreads out, terminating in filaments 
on the mucous membrane of the nasal passage. It here 
receives the impressions of smell and transmits them to the 
brain. 



42 POULTRY DISEASES 

The Organs of Taste 

The tongue is considered the org'an of taste. In most birds, 
the thick, stratified squamous epitheHal dorsal surface is little 
adapted for taste perception. In birds, the ninth nerve is the 
nerve of taste, the lingual or tongue branch of the trigeminus 
or fifth pair represented in animals is not present in the bird. 
Filaments of the first and the second branches of the trifacial, 
which is broadened in the mucous membrane of the hard 
])alate, furnishes taste filaments to that part. Taste buds are, 
therefore, found in the tongue and in the hard palate. 

The Organs of Touch 

The organs of touch in the fowl are the skin and the feathers. 
The skin consists of an epidermis and a dermis. The dermis 
is the true skin and the epidermis a protective layer. The 
skin of birds does not contain sw^eat glands. Fowls are pro- 
vided with a tail or rump gland, called the glandula uropygii, 
or oil gland. This is a tubular gland which secretes an oily 
substance that is carried to the surface through a common 
duct. The bird, by obtaining some of this oil substance on 
its beak, oils the feathers. This oil preserves the feathers 
from becoming dry and brittle and prevents loss from weather 
conditions. In certain kinds of birds, special sense of touch 
and taste perception is provided by the edges and point of the 
beak. The dermis or corium is w^ell developed in the bird and 
furnishes ample muscular means, through dermal muscles, for 
raising and lowering the feathers. This structure is thinner 
than in mammals. Papillary bodies are present only in a few 
areas, as in the region of the eyes and on the toes. Thickened 
epithelial elevations are noted on the ventral portion of the 
toes, where there is great wear as a result of contact with the 
ground. The dermal muscles, which govern the movement 
of the skin, are well developed in certain parts of the body. 
They are divided into primary and secondary muscles. The 
primary muscles are the trvie dermal muscles and originate 
and terminate on the under side of the skin and control the 
movement of the skin for that region. The secondary muscles 
are the dermo-osseous muscles and are branches of the skeletal 
muscles having their origin on the bone and terminating on 
the under side of the skin. 

The feathers grow in tracts, that is there is a space with 
no feathers then a space in wdiich the feathers grow^ in definite 
rows, the feathers covering over the un feathered space or tract. 
On the feathered parts of the skin, the epidermis is thin, rather 
dry on the surface and is provided with continuous scale-like 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 43 

layers. The stratum corneum is thick on the horny sheath of 
the beak, on the dorsal surface of the toes, the spurs of the 
cock, and the scaly plates of the shanks. The feathers cover- 
ing the surface of the body of birds develop from pajnllae 
similar to the hair on mammals. Feathers occur over the whole 
surface of the body excei)t on certain parts of the under 
surface, and the neck, shanks and toes of certain kinds of birds. 
Some breeds of birds are provided with a row ;of feathers on 
the outer side of the shanks and outer toes. The chorium 
is not very rich in blood vessels. Blood vessels form a thick 
net-like structure in the comb, gills or wattles, and similar 
appendages of chickens and turkeys. 

The feathers develop from the papillary structure of the 
corium. The feather is divided into three main parts, as 
follows : a quill, a midrib or shaft and primary and second- 
ary barbs or the barbs and barbules. The free end of the 
quill occupies the papilla of the skin. The quill is nearly round, 
usually being slightly rounded laterally. The quill is hollow 
with thin dividing septa extending crosswise in all directions. 
At the free extremity of the quill, there is a cup-shaped depres- 
sion, in which a fleshy mass is found during the development 
of the feather and through which, during growth, the feather 
gains nourishment. The shaft is provided with four sides and 
four edges. The central core is a spongy material. From the 
sides of the shaft, the primary barbs extend out, and in most 
breeds on either border of these primary barbs we find second- 
ary barbs or barbules which dovetail into the barbules of the 
adjacent barb, thereby making the feather's w^eb. The barbules 
of the fluffy portion of the feather are imperfectly formed and 
do not dovetail with their opponents, hence do not make a 
web. In silky breeds of fowl, the barbules are either absent 
or are, at most, imperfectly formed. 

Fowls change their feather coat twice a year, either in late 
summer or fall, and in spring or early summer. The one in 
the fall or later fall is complete. A chick moults four times 
before growing its adult feathers. 

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE HEN 

The female organs of reproduction in the fowl is the left 
ovary and the left oviduct. The right ovary and right oviduct 
are absent, due to the fact that they degenerate during eml)ry- 
onic life. 

The ovary is located in the sublumbar region of the abdomi- 
nal cavity and just to the left of the median line. It touches 
the left adrenal gland and lies just anterior and below the 



44 



POULTRY DISEASES 



anterior portion of the kidney. It is located superior to the 
Hver and at the juncture of the abdominal and thoracic cav- 
ities. In the pullet, the ovary appears as a miniature cluster 
of grapes, as seen in Fig. 12, letter a. In the adult hen, there 
is found from 900 to 3.500 ova, each capable of forming, in 
its turn, a yolk. Fig. 13, letter a, represents an active ovary 
from a three-pound bantam hen. This hen was developing 
one egg a day, having laid an egg only three hours before 
being killed ; b represents the yolk of an ovum, which would 




Fig. 12. The Pelvic Organs of a Pullet. 

a, ovary; b, oviduct; c, infundibuliform portion or origin of the oviduct; d, 
rectum; e, cloaca into which tbe oviduct empties; f, adrenal gland; g, kidney; h, 
ureter carrying the secretion of the kidney to the cloaca; i, lung. 



probably have been fully developed in less than twenty-four 
hours. The ovum or yolk, is surrounded by a thin membrane 
or capsule, which is very vascular and is shown in Fig. 13. 
This capsule is continued back onto the stalk, which attaches 
it to the central fibrous supporting portion of the ovary. This 
portion is attached to the structures of the back. When the 
yolk portion of the ovum is fully developed, the capsule rup- 
tures and the yolk falls into an expanded portion of the ovi- 
duct at c. Fig. 13, called the ovarian ])ocket. This portion 
of the oviduct is very thin and gradually merges into a thick 
wall, in which ])ortion the mucous membrane is thrown into 
folds. The yolk is surrounded by a delicate memljrane called 
the vitelline membrane, which holds the yolk mass intact, thus 
giving it its spherical appearance. 

After the stigmen ru])tures and the yolk is discharged into 
the ovarian pocket, there remains a cup-like cavity attached 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



45 



to the ovary which is called the calyx, and which gradually 
disappears. 

During the laying period of the hen, one by one, these yolks 
are developed to full size or to maturity from the mass of 
undeveloped ova of the ovary, as illustrated in Fig. 12, letter a. 
The ova in the process of formation are illustrated in Fig. 
13, a. In letter b, there is seen an ovum or yolk reaching full 




Fig. 13. The Functioning Pelvic Organs of a Hen. 
a, ovary; b, ovum fully developed; c, infundibuliform portion of the oviduct; 
d, stigmen or point of rupture of the follicle containing the developing yolk; e, a 
degenerated ovum; f, portion of the oviduct in which the shell is formed; g, a 
portion of the oviduct torn from its ligaments and laid over to one side; h, show- 
ing the villus-like mucous membrane; i, albuminous portion of newly formed egg; 
j, the yolk of same; k, rectum; 1, cloaca. 



development, and d shows a non-vascular line, the stigmen 
where the follicular wall is becoming thin preparatory to dis- 
charging the yolk into the oviduct. The discharge of the yolk 
into the oviduct is sometimes spoken of as ovulation. The 
blood vessels are noted to separate at the stigmal line so that 
ovulation or the discharge of the fully-formed yolk into the 
ovarian pocket should occur without hemorrhage. When de- 
rangement of this part occurs, and hemorrhage occurs, then 



46 



POULTRY DISEASES 



there will be a blood clot on the surface of the yolk which is 
objected to by the consumer. 

The yolk has its origin in a minute microscopic sphere con- 
taining a nucleus as shown in Fig. 14, letter a. This is a typi- 
cal cell with its nucleus, nucleolus and protoplasm. The 
nucleus marks the point of development of the embryo chick 




Fig. 14. A Photomicrograph of a Section of an Ovary of a Hen. 
a, undeveloped ova showing their nuclei; b, an ova in which deposits of yolk has 
begun; c, a section through the center of the developing ova showing the germinal 
vesicle. 

after fertilization by the spermatozoon or male element. The 
nucleus is located in the central part of the cell. When the 
cell begins the development of the yolk there is noted first 
a deposit of fine yolk granules around the central nucleus. 
These granules of yolk material gradually extend toward the 
cell wall. This deposit is known as the latebra or flask-shaped 
mass of white yolk, forming thin layers of yellow yolk. 

Later, when the ovum has reached the size of about 0.66 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 47 

millimeters in diameter, the nucleus occupies a position just 
under the vitelline membrane and at the end of the flask- 
shaped mass, as seen in Fig. 15, letter a. 

Still later there are formed several layers of yellow yolk de- 
posited around the central mass of white yolk, apparently 
brought about through the secretion of the peripheral layer of 
protoplasm. 

The male element or spermatozoon is seen in Fig. 18, let- 
ter a. The spermatozoon makes its way by aid of its terminal 
flagellum or tail through the oviduct and fertilization takes 
place as soon as the yolk is discharged into the ovarian pocket 
and oviduct. While as many as fourteen spermatozoa have 
been found to have penetrated the germ cell, only one sperma- 
tozoon is utilized in this fertilization process. The body of the 
spermatozoon becomes the male pronucleus which unites with 
the female pronucleus and thus fertilization takes place. The 
balance of the spermatozoa perish. 

After the yolk passes into the oviduct, albumin is formed 
around it in the second, or upper portion, by specialized col- 
umnar epithelial cells. 

The contraction of the muscles of the walls of the oviduct 
forces the contents along. When the albumin formation is 
completed, the newly- forming egg passes into the isthmus or 
third portion, where, through the activity of other specialized 
cells, two membranes are formed around the mass. 

In the lower portion of the oviduct. Fig. 13, letter f, the 
calcium layer or shell is formed to protect the delicate mass 
within from external violence. In the fifth portion of the 
oviduct or vagina, the tint is placed on the outer portion of 
the shell, if the egg is a tinted one. 

The formation of albumen around the yolk in the upper 
portion of the oviduct is probably accomplished in about three 
hours. The membranes surrounding the tgg mass are formed 
in the isthmus in about the same length of time. The forma- 
tion of the shell and the expulsion of the egg will be accom- 
pHshed in from twelve to eighteen hours. 

The yolk is of less specific gravity than the albumen and 
therefore it gradually rises to the surface with the blastoderm 
uppermost ; if allowed to remain, the blastoderm or germ may, 
in the course of a few weeks, become adherent to the egg mem- 
brane and cause death of the embryo. However, we have 
found by experiments that this will not take place in the twen- 
ty-one days in which eggs are likely to be kept for hatching 
purposes. In fact, eggs should be set just as soon after being 
laid as possible as hatchability gradually goes down after the 



48 



POULTRY DISEASES 



fourth day and rapidly so after the twenty-first day. If pos- 
sible eggs should be set before they are ten days old. 

There is just as high production of eggs from an individual 
without the services of a male as with such service. In other 
words, the spermatozoa have no influence on the rate and 
number of eggs developed, they have to do with fertilization of 
the germ only. 




Fig. 15. Diagkammatic Structure of the Egg. 
a, blastoderm; b, shell; c, outer shell membrane; d, inner shell membrane; e, the 
air cell at the large end; f, albumen; g, chalaza; h, dark yolk material; i, white yolk 
material; j, vitelline membrane; k, flash-like white yolk the latebra; 1, a thick fluid 
albuminous layer which immediately surrounds the yolk. 

The normal egg consists of an outer shell coating giving it 
a gloss or the so-called bloom, which may be considered as a 
protective coat. The shell consists largely of lime salts. See 
Chapter XV. The two shell membranes are designated as the 
outer and the inner shell membranes. The inner shell mem- 
brane is located just inside the shell, to which it is closely 
adherent. At the time the egg is laid, the egg material fills the 
entire shell space, but as the egg cools from body temperature, 
which is about 107° Fah., the inner shell membrane dips across 
at the large end of the egg, forming an air cell or air space. 
The balance of the membrane is intimately adherent to the 
outer shell membrane. The air chamber becomes larger as the 
egg becomes older and evaporation of moisture from the egg 
takes place. Also in incubation, the air chamber becomes 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 49 

larger as incubation goes on, in order to meet the respiratory 
needs of the developing embryo or, as we may say, the fetus, 
as the head is always at the large end if the tgg has been kept 
on its side during incubation. The shell membranes consist 
of a fibrous structure, the fibers of which extend in all direc- 
tions. The albumen and a portion of the yolk become appro- 
priated for the formation of the embryo chick, as well as some 
of the calcium or lime salts from the inner surface of the 
egg shell. 

Immediately surrounding the yolk there is a dense layer of 
albumen and outside of this a thin or less dense layer. 

The albumen at either pole of the yolk contains a long 
mass of dense and partly twisted albumen, apparently adher- 
ent to the vitelline membrane or yolk sac, and to the inner 
side of the inner shell membrane by the other end. By some 
authors, the chalazae have been regarded as stays, which to a 
certain extent, prevent violence to the delicate structures within 
the central part of the egg. 

The albuminous portion or white of the egg consists of 
86.2 per cent water, 12.3 per cent protein, 0.2 per cent fat and 
0.6 per cent ash and possesses a caloric value of 250. The 
egg yolk consists of 15.7 per cent protein, 33.3 per cent fat, 
1.1 per cent ash and 49.5 per cent water, with a caloric value 
of 1705. 

The hen egg corresponds to the ovum developed in the ovary 
of the female of higher animal life, where, after fertilization 
of the ovum, development of the fetus takes place normally 
in the uterus of the mother. The ovum of mammals is made 
up of a male and a female pronucleus as in the hen egg and 
protoplasm and deutoplasm. The deutoplasm being nutrient 
material for the embryo till it has developed sufificiently to 
draw on the nutrients of the blood of the mother's uterus. 
In the case of the bird, there is no uterus in the sense that 
we speak of it in higher animal life, hence no uterine placenta, 
because there is no fetus developed in the bird, but to take 
the place there is stored up an abundance of food, taking the 
place of the deutoplasm and material nutrients of higher ani- 
mal life. The embryo of the bird develops outside the body, 
in the egg shell, and is surrounded by three similar membranes 
as found surrounding the fetus as it developes in the uterus 
of the female mammal. These membranes serve as a means 
of exchange of gases and for absorption of the nutrients the 
eggs contain and from which the embryo chick is developed. 
Nature has been elaborate in storing up food for the embryo 
and the baby chick, for the yolk is apparently almost wholly 



50 POULTRY DISEASES 

intended to be drawn upon as food for the first seventy-two 
hours of the chick's Hfe after emerging from the shell. An 
examination of a newly-hatched baby chick will show this yolk 
in the abdominal cavity and much still unabsorbed. About 47 
per cent remains in the abdominal yolk sac at hatching. 

The active and functionating oviduct is a rather large, tor- 
tuous tube, varying in size and length according to the size of 
the hen and filling a large part of the left half of the abdominal 
cavity as illustrated in Fig. 13. In a single comb Rhode Island 
Red pullet weighing six pounds and producing an egg a day, 
the oviduct measured twenty inches in length. In a White 
Wyandotte pullet weighing five pounds and whose ovary and 
oviduct had not yet become active,. the oviduct measured but 
five inches in length. An active ovary and oviduct is illustrated 
in Fig. 13, and an inactive ovary and oviduct is seen in Fig. 12. 
When a hen goes from a laying to a non-laying period, the 
ovary absorbes the material of the developing yolks not yet 
discharged and the ovary greatly shrinks in size. The oviduct 
also greatly shrinks in size, however, in neither case do they 
quite reduce to the size they were as a pullet. It has also been 
found that the intestines increase 30 to 40 per cent in bulk 
when a hen goes from a non-laying to a laying condition. 
Again shrinking when the laying period ceases. As a hen 
goes from a non-laying to a laying period, as a result of the 
increased bulk of intestines and reproductive organs, the keel 
is forced downward and the lateral sternal processes are forced 
downward and outward, and the pubic or lay bones become 
wider apart. This is for the purpose of giving greater capacity 
and hence we take advantage of these increased measurements 
and use them in judging the laying qualities of the hen. With 
this crowded condition of the laying hen, it can be readily 
seen that in a very fat hen, with the intestines, liver and 
other organs and a fvmctionating ovary and oviduct, as illus- 
trated in Fig. 13, the abdominal cavity would be crowded. 
When this crowded condition arises, there may be a partial or 
a complete cessation of the function of the ovary and oviduct, 
and the hen ceases laying. 

The oviduct originates at the anterior portion of the abdomi- 
nal cavity. Fig. 12, letter c, by an expansion at the ovary 
in such a way as to receive the yolk when it is discharged 
from the yolk sac of the ovary. This portion is anatomically 
known as the funnel, ostium abdominale, or infundibulum. 
The oviduct may be divided into five parts, as follows : First, 
me funnel or infundibulum ; second, the albumen secreting 
portion ; third, the short constricted ])ortion known as the 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 51 

isthmus ; fourth, the shell gland portion or uterus, and fifth, 
the vagina. The vaginal or posterior portion of the oviduct 
is guarded by a rather well-developed sphincter muscle. The 
oviduct is attached to its surrounding structures by two liga- 
ments, one situated above called the dorsal ligament, and one 
located below called the ventral ligament. 

The oviduct consists of three main coats, namely : an exter- 
nal serous, a middle muscular being made up of an outer longi- 
tudinal and an inner circular layer, and an internal mucous 
coat which is thrown into folds, both primary and secondary, 
and provided with columnar epithelial cells. The oviduct has 
great power of dilatation, but tears easily if traction is too 
much in one direction. A rupture of the oviduct sometimes 
occurs. 



Fig. 16. Generative Organs of a Cockerel. 
a, testes; b, rectum cut and turned back; c, cloaca; d, vas deferens; e, kidneys; 
f, adrenal glands; g, lungs. 

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

The generative organs of the male fowl are the testes, two 
in number, with the ducts which lead from them, the vas 
deferens. 

In the cockerel, before sexual maturity, which is denoted in 
physical appearance by the male bird crowing and well develop- 
ment of the comb and wattles, the testes are very small, meas- 
uring only about one-half inch long and scarcely one-fourth 
inch in diameter. They resemble, in shape, a navy bean and 
are yellowish-white in color. Fig. 16 illustrates the testes at 
a and at d may be seen the undeveloped vas deferens, some- 
times called the seminal tubule. 

As the male bird becomes sexually active, the testes develop 
to enormous size, measuring two inches in length and seven- 



52 POULTRY DISEASES 

eighth inch in diameter, as illustrated in Fig. 17, which is from 
a Single Comb White Leghorn cock one year old. 

The testis is made up of two parts, the globus major and 
the globus minor, the latter being rudimentary. The globus 
major forms practically all the bulk of the testis. The globus 
minor or epididymis, is short and from it originates the vas 
deferens as shown in Fig. 17, letter d. The testicular tissue 
is made up of fine interwoven sperm canals, united by a web 
of connective tissue. The canals are broad. They are the 
secreting tubules in which are formed the spermatozoa, Fig. 
18, and a quantity of fluid in which the spermatozoa are trans- 




FiG. 17. P--I.VIC Organs of a Cock Showing the Fully Developed and Active 

Testes. 
a, testes; b. rectum cut and tvirned back; c, cloaca; d, vas deferens; e, kidneys; 
f, lungs. 

ported and an internal secretion which gives to the male his 
masculine appearance. 

The left testis is usually larger than the right. In wild 
birds they increase in size during the breeding season and 
shrink again out of breeding season. 

The testis is surrounded by a delicate thin membrane, which 
is very vascular, as is shown in Fig. 17, letter a. The testes 
are located just back of the lungs in the region of the adrenal 
glands and below the anterior part of the kidneys and between 
the three last ribs. They are attached by means of loose con- 
nective tissue to the abdominal aorta, veins and bodies of the 
vertebrae. 

The tube carrying the fluid or semen from the testes is 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



53 



called the vas deferens and originates in the globus minor or 
epididymis, which is very short and is located on the upper 
and inner surface of the testis and extends backward, attached 
by connective tissue to the roof of the lumbo-pelvic cavity and 
to the inner side of the kidney. This tube, at first small, gradu- 
ally becomes larger and is tortuous as it reaches the cloaca. 
It empties its contents at the summit of a small eminence in 
the cloacal mucous membrane. 




i' 



(S/ 





Fig. 18. Photomicrograph of Spermatozoa From a 
Smear From Fluid of the Vas Deferens 

OF A Single Comb White Leghorn Cock. 
A, the spermatozoa; b, the head; c, the tail. 



That an internal secretion is manufactured in the testes 
is proved by the physical changes which take place after the 
testes are removed. The bird loses his vim, energy and mas- 
culine appearance and ambitions and becomes sluggish, lays 
on fat and is hated by males and females alike. It often 
shows some femininity in that it will take a brood of chicks 
and mother them. The meat becomes more tender and more 
l)alatable. In short, there is the same change that is noted in 
other animals that have been castrated. 

THE URINARY SECRETION 

The urinary secretion or urine is formed by the kidneys. 
The kidneys are elongated and lobulated, measuring 2.5 inches 
long in the average size adult fowl and occupy irregular cav- 
ities in the lumbo-pelvic roof. Each kidney has three distinct 
lobes. Each lobe is divided into lobules. The minute tubes 



54 POULTRY DISEASES 

carrying the urine are called uriniferous tubules, which ter- 
minate on the surface of the kidney, forming the ureter. The 
ureter extends along the under surface of the kidney, receiv- 
ing the contents from the various tubules which empty into it. 
The ureter empties into the cloaca. The kidney tissue is very 
soft and of a reddish-brown color. There are two kidneys. 

The urinary secretion or urine of the fowl is very thick and 
at times pasty or creamy in consistency, filling the ureter lumen. 
The salts are abundant. In many cases, the material solidifies 
on exposure to the air in less than one minute. The salts 
dry on the outer surface of the droppings and appear as white, 
chalky material. 

The urine of the fowl in reaction is acid to litmus. 



CHAPTER II 

SANITATION 

Where any c()nsi(leral)le number of birds are brought to- 
gether on hmited ground, disease is certain to appear among 
them sooner or later. The greater the number of birds kept 
on any given area, other things being equal, the sooner dis- 
ease will appear, the more rapidly will it spread, and the greater 
will be the loss from it. 

All intelligently directed measures to prevent or delay the 
appearance of disease in a flock, all sane measures to limit its 
spread and encompass its eradication, constitute sanitation. 
Measures, the purpose of which are to cure the sick birds or 
relieve suffering, come under the head of therapeutics or 
administration of drugs. 

On farms of considerable size, where attention is given 
chiefly to general crops, and but few fowls are kept on a 
practically unlimited range, the loss from disease may be 
small, where indifferent or even bad sanitation prevails; but 
in intensive poultry plants, where the number of birds is large 
for the size of the range, there can be no continued exemption 
from devastating epiornithics, if reasonable sanitation is not 
carried out. Any attempt to operate such a plant in insani- 
tary buildings and yards, or under conditions that do not per- 
mit of sanitation, while it may succeed for a time, will result 
in loss oftener than otherwise, and in the end, must inevitably 
fail. 

SITE FOR THE POULTRY PLANT 

A rolling, or even moderately steep, plot of ground is desir- 
able for the location of the poultry houses and runs for the 
fowls. Good drainage is a necessary requirement and must 
be provided for artificially if the location is such that natural 
drainage is not perfect. 

The surface of the poultry yard must be free from uneven- 
ness, so that water will not collect in small pools. Dust bath 
places or "waller holes" must be kept filled. 

The ])oultry runs and buildings should have a free exposure 
to sunlight, though some shade must be provided for protec- 
tion during excessively hot summer days. For shade, trees 
are the coolest on account of evaporation of watery vapor 
given off from this form of vegetation. The trees best suited 



56 POULTRY DISEASES 

for poultry runs are figs, china berries, mulberry, willow, 
plumbs and peach. Birds must have shade in excessively hot 
days or they suffer and this may lower resistance and disease 
appear. Tin should never be used for shade as it deflects 
heat more than boards and best of all improvised shade can be 
made of a frame on which has been stretched burlap. Shade 
should always be on a grassy plot. In cold climates, if the 
house can be placed so that it will be protected from cold 
winds by other buildings, a hedge, or an orchard, it is advis- 
able to do so. The house should not be placed where it will 
be shaded at all times as it is hkely to become damp and 
unhealthful. 

Soil best suited for poultry runs should contain a goodly 

proportion of sand. It is very desirable that it be of such a 

nature that the run will not readily become muddy during wet 

weather, and such that they will dry very quickly after rains. 

The runs should be thoroughly grassed over, and the kind of 

grass will depend on the location. In some sections bermuda 

grass will be found very satisfactory and a sod can be held 

where the number of birds do not exceed one to fifty square 

feet. In other sections, blue grass and clover, or alfalfa can 

be used where the area to hold a sod will amount to about 

150 square feet per bird. In England, the practice is to keep. 

but 100 breeding birds or growing chicks to the acre of pasture, 

and in the case of breeding hens the houses are fenced and 

cows used to pasture the ground. The houses must be widely 

distributed over the pasture with one house and only 100 

fowls on each acre. If the run is too limited to hold a sod, 

then the double yardage system can be used and one yard sown 

in rape, cow peas, or oats, depending on the season, while the 

other yard is being grazed. Rye, wheat or oats is best for 

winter pasturage, rape in the spring and fall when plenty of 

moisture is present, and cow peas in the more dry part of the 

year. The continued ploughing or spading up of the ground 

and the growing of crops has a tendency to use up the organic 

matter or droppings deposited on it and a tendency to prevent 

the ground from becoming fowl-sick. If a contagious disease 

appears it is often necessary to change to new quarters and 

even dispose of the old flock for food and start a new flock. 

This has been found necessary in such diseases as fowl cholera, 

blackhead and paralysis of adult fowls. 

THE BUILDINGS AND RUNS 

Fowl must be provided with green feed the year round and 
the green feed of the runs either in the form of crops or of 



SANITATION 57 

grass will furnish this in the warmer months of the year, 
besides helping to keep the yard pure. Animal food and exer- 
cise is also essential. The exercise can be provided by keep- 
ing litter in the house and throwing the grain feed in the 
litter, make them exercise for it. The animal food on the 
farm can in part be supplied in the summer time by allowing 
the birds to range over the farm. Some of the smaller breeds 
as the Leghorns, will forage for a quarter of a mile in search 
of waste grain, bugs, insects and other waste products which 
she converts into growth or into eggs. No more than fifty to 
one hundred birds should be kept in one flock on the farm and 
these allowed to run out into the fields of larger crops as corn, 
cotton, tobacco and sugar beets. Commercial flocks sometimes 
consist of 500 birds to the unit, but so many birds in one flock 
running over a farm will kill some of the vegetation or crop 
closer to the building. A poultry house of portable style can 
be moved from one part of the farm to another as the crops 
are rotated from small grains to larger grains. In this way, 
young growing birds, and breeding and laying birds, can be 
scattered over the farm, protecting the crops against bugs 
and insect pests, improving the fertility of the soil, and making 
a return in eggs or in growth of the waste grain, bugs and 
insects. It has been shown that fruit trees and nut trees 
of all kinds are protected by fowls running in the orchard. 
The fowls devour the insects and worms that are harmful 
to the trees and at the same time furnish themselves with 
needed animal protein. Fifty birds can be kept with very little 
extra feed on a four-horse farm living, for the most part, on 
the waste around the barn and fields. The same protection 
is furnished to the smaller fruits as grapes, currants and goose- 
berries. Birds may be kept among these shrubs except in the 
season of the development of the blossom and fruit. Fowls 
rid stubble fields such as wheat and oats after the crops have 
been removed, of bugs and other insects, and thus make more 
favorable the growing of another crop the succeeding year. 
Often the youngsters on range can be used for this purpose, 
housing them in portable poultry houses as stated above. These 
houses have sled runners or they may be mounted on low 
wheels, and are easily moved from place to place. Grass- 
hoppers are gotten rid of by this means. At the same time, 
the fowls are provided with feed and make satisfactory growth 
and thus profit. The slogan "fence the garden and not the 
fowls," should be carried out. 

All modern poultry houses are provided with an open front. 
This open space should be at least thirty inches wide and nearly 



58 POULTRY DISEASES 

as long as the house. In cold countries, where it is necessary 
to keep the birds shut up for a considerable time each winter, 
a window should be provided to give light while they are shut 
in the house. In this sort of climate the open front is provided 
with a drop curtain made of burlap or ducking to keep out the 
wind and much of the cold, but at the same time always insure 
proper ventilation. The house should face the south, so that 
the sun can gain access to the interior at all times. The ground 
should slope from the house so that water does not accumulate 
around the building. The floor may be made of dirt, cinders, 
gravel, crushed rock, boards or of cinders. Cement is the most 
sanitary and advisable, but is the most expensive. If of cin- 
ders, there is needed ten inches of cinders or crushed rock 
as a base and for underdrainage to ensure a dry floor surface. 
On top of this base, there is placed from two to four inches of 
rough concrete made of one part of cement to seven of crushed 
rock and sand. On top of this rough concrete there is placed 
one-half to one inch of finish coat made of one part cement 
to two of sifted sand. The surface coat should be troweled out 
smooth. On top of this is placed the litter in which the birds 
scratch for their grain feed. The cement floor top is above 
the ground so as to ensure good drainage from the top of the 
floor. Birds cannot be successfully housed in buildings with 
wet floors. Nothing reduces the resistance of the bird so 
quickly as a wet floor from which cold damp vapors arise. 
Birds are a dry weather individual. If underdrainage is not 
provided as outlined above, then the floor during rainy times 
will be wet and is a fruitful source for such diseases as roup. 

If the floor is of dirt, gravel, or cinders, it should be several 
inches above the level of the outside ground surface and the 
ground should slope from the building. If of cinders or rock, 
they should be thoroughly tami)ed. Dirt is objectionable be- 
cause the birds make dust baths and the surface is kept more 
or less uneven. Litter on such a floor is objectionable because 
of the dust that arises when the birds are scratching for their 
grain. Birds without this exercise do not lay as well as with 
exercise. Board floors are best constructed about eighteen 
inches above the ground and made of tongued and grooved 
flooring. The north, east and west sides should be boxed so 
that the cold winter winds cannot sweep under the house and 
make the house colder. 

The modern i)oultry house equipment includes a removable 
(lr()])ping board built horizontally and about thirty inches above 
the fl(j()r. The removable dropping boards allow of their 
removal so that they can be sprayed on all sides and thus rid 



SANITATION 59 

of mites and infection. The perch poles are located horizon- 
tally above the dropping boards and about fourteen inches 
apart and ten to twelve inches from the back wall of the house 
and the same distance from the front of the dropping boards. 
The perch poles should be about ten inches above the dropping 
boards. At one end of the dropping boards is built a broody 
coop in which to break up the broody hens. The nests are 
constructed according to the size of the breed of birds. For 
the small breeds as the Leghorns, twelve inches scjuare is of 
right size, and for the utility breeds, as the Reds, Rocks or 
Wyandottes, the nests should be fourteen inches square and for 
the larger breeds, as the Brahma, the nests should be sixteen 
inches square. The nests are placed either under the front 
end of the dropping boards or at one side of the building and 
above the floor. By this arrangement the entire floor is avail- 
able for scratch material such as shredded stover, straw or 
leaves, and in this scratch material the grain ration is thrown. 
During the hot part of the summer, ventilation is needed in 
the back of the house so as to get a draft through the house. 
In the winter time, this ventilation is closed and ventilation 
is then by diffusion and the cold air moving through the house 
slower makes a warmer house. The back ventilator is con- 
structed high enough so that there will be no draft on the 
birds as cold damp drafts lower the birds' resistance and such 
diseases as affect the respiratory tract may appear. Among 
these diseases are swollen eyes, colds and roup. 

In constructing the poultry house, except for the open front 
and back ventilator, the walls and roof are made tight, so that 
no wind or drafts come through and rain is kept out. 

Sunlight and especially sunshine in the building ensures a 
dry house, which is essential to the general health of the birds 
and also makes an unfavorable place for the parasites and bac- 
teria. It has the advantage also of revealing filth in the build- 
ing which might otherwise escape the eye of the attendant, and 
remain to breed disease in the flock.* 

The scratch material or litter in which the grain is throwni 
is usually cleaned out once every three months, at which time 
the house should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, using 
a four per cent solution of some standardized coal tar disin- 
fectant dip, such as Zenoleum, with a spray pump. White- 
wash gives a clean appearance to the house and also gives 
longer feeding hours to the birds as the building will not 
become dark as soon as otherwise. This is worthy of con- 

*For further study of poultry liouse construction see I'oultry Culture Sanitation 
and Hygiene by 15. l'\ Kaupji, I'ul). by W. 15. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



60 POULTRY DISEASES 

sideration by the poultryman since we have found that the 
length of feeding hours is a factor in egg production since the 
longer the feeding hours, the more mash the hen will consume, 
and the more mash the hen consumes the greater number of 
eggs she will lay, provided it is the right season of the year 
for her to lay and she has been bred for high egg production. 
Poultry men object to whitewashing poultry houses and it has 
practically gone out of use. They argue that lime is hard on 
the feet and legs and that particles flying in the air may get 
into the eyes of the birds and cause inflammation of the eye. 
Lime in a dry state has no destructive action on mites and 
lice so that from that standpoint we will not consider it. Lime 
whitewash then can be considered from but two standpoints, 
that is, in making a lighter room for the birds, and in making 
a clean white appearing wall. 

The perch poles should be made proof against mites. This 
can be done by giving them, occasionally, a coat of creosote 
or pure Zenoleum. New perch poles will need about three 
coats about one week apart and after that time once or twice 
during the warm weather will make them mite-proof. Kero- 
sene or a four per cent solution of any standardized coal tar 
disinfectant dip will kill all the mites it gets on but it will 
not keep the mites away. As soon as the perch pole dries, the 
mites can swarm over them again. The perch pole should be 
free from cracks and crevices. It is better to swing the perch 
poles by chain from the ceiling so that they do not touch the 
wall or any part come in contact with the dropping boards. 
Dropping boards should be cleaned once and better twice a 
week. Mites multiply in the droppings as well as in cracks 
of the perch poles and nests and when in large numbers may 
be found swarming 'all over the house. 

IMMUNITY OR NATURAL RESISTANCE 

Immunity literally means proof against disease, that is, it 
is the name of the condition that enables a fowl to resist the 
action of pathogenic or disease-producing germs, or to be 
unafifected by their products. Immunity is only a relative 
term, the condition is not absolute and permanent, neither is 
it constant and continuous. 

Whenever a bird is unable to adjust itself to its environment, 
it becomes susceptible to the effect of the environment, it 
becomes susceptible to the effects of the causative agents of 
disease, that is, its imnumity, at least acquired immunity, is 
suspended. 



SANITATION 61 

The term acquired immunity is ordinarily used in reference 
to infective diseases, that is, diseases caused by germs, or bac- 
teria, those diseases resuking from the invasion of miscroscopic 
parasites called germs ; although it may be used in designating 
the resistance to the action of zootoxins, or animal poisons, 
such as snake venom and possibly, also, of the poisonous sub- 
stances ejected by centipedes and scorpions, as well as the 
vegetable poisons, ricine, abrin, crotin and robin, obtained from 
the proteins of grains. 

Immunity or proof against disease is then of two kinds : 
acquired and natural. 

Acquired immunity is a resistance in the form of antitoxin 
built up in the body as a result of being vaccinated as in the 
case of fowl cholera, or of sore head, or of a bird that has 
passed through an attack of the disease. 

Natural immunity is a resistance resident in the body of the 
bird from hatching time or without being the result of a stimu- 
lus as in the case of vaccination, or of the bird passing 
through an attack of the disease. 

When a bird recovers from a contagious disease it does so 
by the fact that the cells of the body of the bird are stimulated 
to form an antitoxin as a result of the injury done these cells by 
the toxin or poison given off by the germs causing the disease. 
The bird then does not again, or at least for a considerable 
time, contract a second attack of the same disease. Each kind 
of disease producing germ causes a formation of a protective 
substance by the cells which will kill that germ and none other. 
In every outbreak of contagious disease we note some birds 
that do not contract the disease. These birds have a natural 
immunity or resistance. We also note that where birds have 
poor sanitary surroundings contagious diseases are more preva- 
lent ; that is, the natural resistance of all birds is lowered. All 
birds have more or less natural resistance but the susceptible 
ones, that is, those that contract the disease have less resistance 
than those that do not contract it under good sanitary condi- 
tions. A good example of lowered natural resistance is given 
in the classical test for anthrax germs on fowls and is as fol- 
lows : The fowl is naturally immune to anthrax germs and if 
in good physical condition will not develop anthrax after being 
inoculated with the germs. But on the other hand if the bird 
l)e subjected to a chamber kept at a high temperature for sev- 
eral hours and inoculated with the anthrax germs it will de- 
velop the disease. In this treatment the natural resistance is 
lowered. The bird contracts the disease on account of having 



62 POULTRY DISEASES 

its natural resistance lowered by being kept under unnatural 
surroundings. 

Insanitary buildings will bave a tendency to lower the aver- 
age resistance of the fowls and favor the attack by contagious 
diseases. Such conditions as dirt floors allowed to become un- 
even and below the level of the outside ground allowing pools 
of water to accumulate and the floor becoming wet and remain- 
ing so after protracted rain. The dirt constituting the floor 
becoming foul and stinking by not being cleaned for several 
months at a time and no replenishing of the top soil. Perch 
poles placed at an angle from front to back instead of hori- 
zontal, with no dropping boards to catch the droppings. Such 
dirt floor is invariably wet and many times we have found leak- 
ing roofs so that the water ran down into the house during a 
rain. The sides and back as well as the top had large holes 
between the boards. These cracks allow drafts upon the birds 
and this lowers their resistance and impairs their health. Un- 
der these conditions resistance to disease is sure to be lowered 
and the birds may become sick at any time. When contagious 
disease attacks such a flock the death rate is always greater 
than when kept under proper hygienic conditions. 

HEALTH OF THE BABY CHICK AS INFLUENCED 
BY INCUBATION 

The question which has exercised the minds of poultry 
breders in all countries where the poultry industry has made 
considerable progress, and also of those engaged in investiga- 
tion, is the enormous embryonic mortality, or ''dead in the 
shell" chicks during the period of hatching. Such observations 
are of especial interest to those who are hatching on a large 
scale and use incubators almost exclusively. It has been stated 
that such embryonic mortality is in the neighborhood of 40 
per cent, of fertile eggs, taking a whole season's breeding. 
That cannot be regarded as satisfactory. It may be due en- 
tirely to the fact that incubators are second best, and that arti- 
ficial methods are entirely distinct from that of the hen. If so, 
we will need find how far it is possible to remedy such a state 
of afl"airs. We know that the heat as applied to an egg from 
the body of a hen is by contact and totally different to that of 
an incubator. One is by actual contact and the other is by 
radiation. In one experiment eggs all from one breed and one 
flock were taken. The eggs hatched under hens had only 10.7 
per cent dead germs, and the other eggs from the same stock 
placed in an incubator had 33.4 per cent dead germ in the shell. 

A flock of chicks hatched by an incubator using a water cir- 
culation method of applying heat, in which the water pipe 



SANITATION 63 

leaked to an extent that too high a humidity attained, resulted 
in all such chicks being weak. This weakness retarded growth 
and produced a flock of chicks showing weakness in constitu- 
tion throughout their entire growing period and the pullets 
coming into laying were weak as a result of the defect in in- 
cubation. 

Chicks hatched under hens irregular in attention to their 
nests and in incubators that are not held at a constant tempera- 
ture are weaker than where incubation has gone on properly. 
Such chicks are puny and readily succumb to improper care 
or to abuse as being run over and knocked about by stronger 
chicks. An incubator that has carried a temperature at one 
time 95 degrees, another 105 degrees, and still another 103 de- 
grees, will have more embryos die in the shell after the 18th 
day and the chicks will be weaker and this weakness will be 
reflected through their developmental possibilities. In many 
cases the chicks die while pipping out of the shell. This is due, 
in part, to undue drying of the shell. The hen places on the 
egg shell a very light coat of oil which is rubbed off of the 
skin of the hen and this prevents the shells from becoming too 
dry. Best results from a health standpoint in hatching is a 
temperature of 103 degrees Fahrenheit throughout the hatch. 
Eggs should be turned at least six times a day and even more 
will be beneficial as a ten turns her eggs about nine times a 
day. This prevents the adherence of the fetal membranes, a 
fertile cause of cripples and a source of injury to the yolk sac 
and death of the chick. Chicks at hatching have 47 per cent 
of the egg yolk in the abdominal yolk sac and should not be fed 
till the chick is seventy-two hours old as this abdominal yolk 
acts as a food for this length of time. It is noted that where 
chicks are thus handled they are stronger and healthier and do 
better and more of them are reared. The first day the chicks 
are taken out of the incubator they should receive only sour 
milk or butter milk. The second day they should receive the 
same kind of milk and two small feeds of wet mash and the 
third day may be placed on full feed. Injury may be done by 
being over kind in the feeding of baby chicks. The three days 
supply of a perfect food in the abdominal yolk sac makes 
shipping of baby chicks long distances possible and the chicks 
arrive in good physical condition. 25 chicks to the compart- 
ment, is all that should be allowed. Too much crowding lowers 
their vitality or physical resistance. 

Never allow baby chicks to become chilled. Chilling for only 
fifteen minutes may result in a fatal bowel trouble. Diarrhea 
will appear in three of four days after chilling and the diarrhea 



64 POULTRY DISEASES 

due to chilling usually appears from the tenth to the fourteenth 
day after hatching. 

That diarrhea leaves the chick in a weakened constitutional 
condition is shown by the fact that in one flock the chicks 
suffering from diarrhea weighed, as an average, at the end of 
eight weeks, 0.28 pound each, and in the same flock those chicks 
not affected with diarrhea averaged 0.47 pound each in weight. 
In another flock those chicks that had an attack of diarrhea 
weighed, at the end of eight weeks, 0.56 pound each and those 
not attacked by diarrhea weighed as an average 0.74 pound 
each. In these two tests all birds were Single Comb White 
Leghorns and all of one flock. , 

THE EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC SURROUNDINGS 

The health of birds suffer and their resistance is lowered if 
the poultry house is located on low flat ground where the mists, 
fogs, and vapors settle and remain. The currents of atmos- 
pheric moisture naturally follow down the slopes of land and 
come to rest in the inclosed valley and swamps. In these places 
one notices at night the cool, and often chilly, moist, heavy air 
wdiich has settled and stagnates there. When fowls are re- 
quired to live in such stagnant air saturated with moisture they 
tend to become mopish, debilitated indicating a lowered resist- 
ance and readily succumb to roup, sore head, and other devas- 
tating diseases. 

The ground selected for poultry yards therefore as pointed 
out above should be high and dry, slope to the south, and have 
good drainage, and preferably gravelly or sandy soil. Sickness 
lurks where stagnant, saturated, foul soil exists. Such yards 
dry off soon after rains. Where grass or some vegetation is 
not grown to take up the organic matter chicks are likely to 
become sick and mortality run high and also these conditions 
are unhealthful for adult fowls. Another thing that is essen- 
tial for the health of birds, and that is fat soluble vitamine. 
Since fat soluble vitamine is found only in certain organs of 
animal life as the liver, kidneys, blood, and in animal and bird 
food elaborated for their young, such foods as eggs and milk, 
and in the leafy vegetables, it is necessary for birds, for the 
most part, to secure this substance from green feed though it 
is possible that fish meal, and meat scrap contains some of this 
substance. This green stuff grown upon the yards will make 
good this shortage. For good health of fowls not only must 
the birds receive a sufficient quantity of fat but also of water 
soluble vitamine, but also sufficient kinds and amounts of min- A 
erals, a ration not excessively acid, protein high in certain 



SANITATION 65 

amino acids, and of proper nutritive ratio, or to put it another 
way, a certain percentage calories protein calories. This varies 
with the purpose for which the birds are fed, but usually runs 
between 12 and 16 per cent. Certain minerals are not only an 
aid to construction of tissues but also to the function of organs 
of the body. 

The health of chicks is affected by the kind of food some 
feeds being injurious to poultry in any quantities, such as vel- 
vet bean meal, either ground beans alone, or beans and pods. 
Cotton seed meal in quantities over 10 per cent may be injuri- 
ous to birds and especially to growing chicks and pullets in their 
first laying year. The injury is greater where the birds are 
kept in confinement. Environment is a greater factor in the 
health of birds. The fewer birds in a unit, and the more 
widely distributed these birds are over pasturage, the more 
robust health the birds will be in. Inherited weakness of many 
kinds is a factor in health. 

THE WATER SUPPLY 

To avoid great suffering among the fowls in hot weather 
they require an abundance of water. Eggs are sixty-five per 
cent water and the flesh is as high as eighty -five per cent water. 
Birds drink every few minutes during hot weather and if water 
is not kept constantly before them at all times ill health is likely 
to result, such diseases as going light appear, growing birds 
become stunted and laying hens fall off in the yield of eggs. 

The water should be fresh and the supply replenished three 
times a day, and in vessels so arranged that the birds cannot get 
into them and thus contaminate the water with the filth from 
the yard carried on their feet. Various kinds of infections 
and parasitisms are spread in most cases, not by direct con- 
tact between the sick and well birds, but, indirectly through 
the medium of the soil and the roosts on which the birds live, 
the food that they eat, and the water they drink. Any means 
of feeding birds in which a contagious disease is present to pre- 
vent contamination as in birds stepping into feed or water with 
their dirty feet, will tend to lessen the chances of other birds 
becoming infected. 

The vessels containing the drinking water should, under 
normal conditions, be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected daily 
in hot weather, and once a week the remainder of the year. 
When disease is present in the flock, the vessels for drinking 
water should be cleaned and disinfected daily, regardless of 
the season; and this practice should be continued for several 
days after all symptoms of the disease have ceased to appear 



66 POULTRY DISEASES 

in the flock. Vessels containing water for small chicks should 
be cleaned daily and disinfected. 

The cleaning of the drinking vessels is mainly a matter of 
thorough washing ; and the disinfection of the vessels can best 
be accomplished with a four per cent solution of some stand- 
ardized coal tar disinfectant dip as Zenoleum. Twelve table- 
spoonfuls of the dip to each gallon of water will make the 
required strength. 

Fowls tolerate certain antiseptics internally very well and do 
not resent the taste of them in the drinking water to the extent 
that other animals do and it is a wise plan to use antiseptics 
in the drinking water whenever an infectious disease is present 
on the premises or when the purity of the water is under sus- 
picion. 

The most desirable antiseptic to use in the drinking water 
is potassium permanganate. This is best used by keeping a 
stock solution. To make this stock solution place a quantity 
of the crystals of potassium permanganate in a large bottle or 
jar and fill with water ; of this solution use sufficient in the 
drinking water to give it a red color stopping just short of a 
purple tinge. This solution is best given in enamel ware or in 
glass or glazed earthern ware as it has an effect upon metal as 
galvanized iron water containers. More water can be added to 
the stock solution from time to time, as needed, also crystals, 
care being taken to keep an excess of the permanganate crys- 
tals in the bottom of the jar. 

Permanganate of potash may be used to an advantage in 
water containing a large amount of organic matter. 

Other antiseptics such as pure carbolic acid may be used. A 
one-half of one per cent solution, or five teaspoonfuls to the 
gallon of water, will meet the requirement. Do not use car- 
bolic acid and permanganate of potash at the same time. 

Under many conditions, especially when certain intestinal 
diseases as those caused by the coccidium tenellum or protozoa, 
mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate may be used. Bi- 
chloride of mercury is used in a solution of 1 :10,000. To 
make this solution it requires six grains of the mercury to the 
gallon of water. To put the mercury in solution it will be 
necessary to add three grains of citric acid. 

Both mercuric chloride and carbolic acid are very poisonous 
and must be handled with care. On this account the com- 
paratively harmless potassium permanganate should be used. 

Ipecac is also used as an agent against protozoan diseases of 
fowls. 



SANITATION 67 

DISINFECTION 

The removal or destruction of parasites is called disinfesta- 
tion and the removal or destruction of germs is called disinfec- 
tion. Because of the ability of a single germ to multiply, and a 
single pair of parasites to multiply, and start trouble again the 
work of destruction of these enemies must be thoroughly done. 

The first step in any disinfection is the removal of all visible 
filth. A small lump of manure behind a next box or a single 
grain of dirt in a crack in the floor or on the roosts may furnish 
the hiding place from which will emerge the parasites or germs 
to reinfest or reinfect the whole building, and spread disease 
anew among the flock, thus undoing the whole of the disinfec- 
tion. 

Disinfection of the Buildings 

The first operation in disinfecting a poultry house is the thor- 
ough removal of all manure, trash, and litter. If the nests and 
roost poles are removable they should be taken from the house 
and thoroughly disinfected. After they have sunned and the 
balance of the fixtures have been thoroughly cleaned and dis- 
infected they should be returned ; if left in the building during 
the disinfection, they must be as thoroughly cleaned as the re- 
mainder of the building, and the disinfectant used must be 
applied to them as carefully as to other parts of the building. 

The floor should be scraped and the walls and ceiling thor- 
oughly swept. All parts of the interior of the building should 
then be thoroughly scrubbed with water, to which lye has been 
added, and a broom or stiff brush used and then the building 
flushed, using plenty of water. The building is then ready for 
use of the disinfectant. 

There are three dififerent classes of agents that may be used 
in disinfection, but only one of these can successfully be used 
in the modern poultry house. These three kinds are as fol- 
lows : First, gaseous form ; second, liquid ; third, heat. 

A gas may be used in disinfecting only when the building 
can be closed tightly enough to prevent its ready escape. This 
excludes the great majority of poultry houses; but in such 
as it can be used, all floors, windows and other openings must 
be tightly closed and sealed with sealing paper for several 
hours after the application of the gas. 

Of the gases that are used, two may be recommended. These 
are formaldehyde for germ infection and sulphur fumes for 
parasites, as mites and lice. 



68 POULTRY DISEASES 

Formaldehyde is used as a gas. It may be procured at drug 
stores in a forty per cent watery solution known as formalin, 
from which gas may be readily generated. 

After tightly sealing all openings into the building except the 
door, place in an earthen or metal vessel, two quarts of for- 
malin for each 1,000 cubic feet of space in the building, place 
this vessel in a much larger one and set on the floor, then 
empty into the formalin one-half pound of the crystals of 
potassium permanganate for each quart of formalin and leave 
the building at once, closing and sealing the door from the 
outside. 

The temperature of the room, during the disinfection, should 
be above 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and the more it is above this 
temperature, the better. Moisture in the air is an aid in this 
sort of disinfection ; it may be secured by sprinkling the floor 
just before starting the generation of the gas. The building 
should be kept closed a minimum time of six hours and better 
still twenty-four hours. The building must be thoroughly 
aired before the fowls are permitted to re-enter it. 

For disinfection with sulphur fumes, the ordinary commer- 
cial flowers of sulphur should be used. The sulphur must be 
burned in the building to generate sulphur dioxide, which is 
efifective in disinfection only in the presence of water vapor; 
therefore, some means for providing the necessary moisture 
in the building must be provided. This may be accomplished 
by spraying the walls and ceiling until they are dripping, just 
before the beginning of the disinfecting, or by boiling a large 
vessel of water in the building during the generation of the 
sulphur fumes. 

Fire is required to generate the sulphur fumes and care 
must be taken not to endanger the building with it. A large 
iron vessel partly filled with live coals may be used; set the 
vessel on the floor, or if the floor is of wood, place several 
bricks under the kettle so that it does not come in direct 
contact with the wood and endanger the building from lire. 
Place live coals in the iron vessel and pour two pounds of 
sulphur on the coals for each 1,000 cubic feet of space in the 
building. Before leaving the biylding and closing the door 
be sure the sulphur is burning. 

The building should remain tightly sealed for from twelve 
to twenty-four hours and then be thoroughly aired before the 
fowls are admitted. 

The disinfection of drinking fountains is discussed under 
"Water Sup])ly." (See page 65.) Closed drinking fountains 



SANITATION 69 

that cannot be gotten at on the inside to remove sUme and 
to properly scrub with disinfectants should not be used. 

Disinfectants that can be applied in liquid form are best 
suited for disinfecting the ordinary poultry house. It requires 
longer to apply them than it does to prepare for disinfection 
by gas, and germs and parasites protected in crevices and in 
decayed surfaces of the wooden walls cannot be reached as 
by the gaseous disinfectants. Fowls need not be shut out of 
the building for several hours, as is the case when the gas 
is used. This is often a considerable advantage. Further- 
more, the germs and parasites hidden in the walls and roosts 
and buried in the decayed surface of wooden buildings can in 
a great measure be covered up and rendered harmless by use 
of whitewash. If whitewash be used, there should be placed 
in it sufficient disinfectant dip to make four per cent solution 
to make it destructive to all parasites it comes in contact with. 
Lime alone is not sufficient. 

Liquid disinfectants are best applied with a spray pump, 
and all the force possible should be used in throwing the spray 
on the walls. In this way, the liquid should reach all parts 
of an uneven surface better than when applied with a brush 
and much time will be saved in its application. 

Disinfectants will act more vigorously when applied hot, 
and solutions should always be at least warm when they reach 
the surfaces to be disinfected. A copious quantity should be 
used. The solution may cost but a fraction of a cent, or at 
most a few cents a gallon, and it is a poor policy to economize 
by using an insufficient amount. Every part of the surface 
of the interior of the building should be thoroughly wet and 
completely covered with the disinfecting solution when the 
work is complete; great care should be observed that no part 
is skipped. 

There are a great number of disinfectants that may be used 
in solution for disinfecting poultry houses, but none are supe- 
rior to the standardized coal tar disinfectant dips. Formalin, 
for example, is exceedingly irritating to the eyes and respira- 
tory passages of the one doing the spraying. Potassium Per- 
manganate needs to be applied in almost saturated solution to 
be eflfective, and thus becomes expensive. A solution of cop- 
per sulphate is not fatal to all parasites. Crude petroleum 
leaves the building unsightly and the odor persists unduly 
long, and so it is with many others. 

Of the coal tar disinfectants, crude carbolic acid perhaps 
stands at the head on account of its low cost; however, it is 
quite variable in comparison, because it is not constant in its 



70 POULTRY DISEASES 

antiseptic properties. It should be used in at least a five per 
cent solution. Use two pints of crude carbolic acid to each 
five gallons whitewash. The other coal tar dips are numer- 
ous and a dozen or more can be found on the market, each 
under its own trade name. The dip should have a coefficient 
of at least 5 to 6, meaning that its strength is five to six times 
as great as carbolic acid. 

The coal tar disinfectant dip when mixed with water pro- 
duces a soapy emulsion. The alkalinity of the soap is a factor 
that assists in its penetration, the soapy emulsion helps to 
bring into activity the cresols and hydrocarbons, the active 
principles of the product. 

In our tests with coal tar dips of a coefficiency of 5 to 6, we 
determined that a four per cent solution will kill mites and 
lice in about two minutes. 

While spraying is in progress, all eggs should be removed 
from the nests, as the fat of the yolks readily absorb objec- 
tionable odors. 

Heat is one of the most effective and reliable disinfectants. 
It may be utilized in poultry houses, after thoroughly clean- 
ing, in the form of a flame from a gasoline torch. Every por- 
tion of the walls, ceiling, floor, roosts, nests and boxes must 
be carefully flamed. This method, though tedious, is effective. 
Used with ordinary care, it is devoid of danger to the oper- 
ator or building. 

Disinfection of the Yards 

A complete disinfection of poultry yards and runs, that is, a 
destruction of all the disease germs and parasites and parasite 
eggs with which the premises may be contaminated by an 
infected flock, is scarcely possible by the ordinary means 
employed in poultry house disinfection. 

When it is remembered that the germs of nearly all dis- 
eases, and the eggs of nearly all internal parasites of poultry 
are eliminated in the droppings of affected birds, the danger 
from contaminated runs will be better appreciated, and with 
the realization that each mature hen produces nearly thirty 
pounds of droppings a year, approximately one-third of which 
is deposited on the runs, the importance of the yard as a factor 
in the spread of disease is seen to be very great. 

The problem of having clean, non-infected ground as yards 
for poultry can be solved by the double yardage system ; spad- 
ing or ploughing and seeding one yard while the other is 
being grazed, or by having a permanent sod to utilize the 



SANITATION 71 

organic matter deposited on it, or by a change of ground from 
time to time. Ground, after a while, may become fowl-sick, 
so that birds do not do well on it and it finally becomes impos- 
sible to raise chicks and finally old birds cannot successfully 
be kept on it. As mentioned before, the movable poultry house 
offers many sanitary advantages and solves the problem for 
the farm. Ploughing or spading the yard, thus exposing sur- 
face layers of the soil to the disinfecting actions of the rays 
of the sun, and keeping the birds ofif till a few crops have been 
raised, ofifers the most practical means of disinfecting it. 
Growing crops in yards while idle tend to use up the organic 
matter deposited in the droppings. 

The ground can also be aided in purifying itself by apply- 
ing quite a coat of lime each year, as lime aids in splitting the 
organic matter and particularly liberates the ammonia. This 
should be applied just before ploughing the ground. 

Where the construction of the poultry buildings is such as 
preclude a change of location, the two-yard system can in 
most cases be installed. It ofifers many advantages ; while one 
yard is being used, the other may be ploughed and a crop 
grown. This may be a crop on which the birds may be turned 
for half an hour each evening to allow them a feed of green 
forage. 

In any system of yardage where the area of the ground is 
small for the number of birds, the yard should receive fre- 
quent attention at the hands of the cleaner. If the yard is 
grassed, and the grass is short, it should be swept weekly, 
gathering the manure in piles and carting it away, as street 
cleaners do. A yard that is bare of vegetation can be cleaned 
in the same way, even more easily and efifectually. This will 
lengthen the sanitary life of a yard to many times its dura- 
tion without cleaning. 

All mashes should be fed from a mash hopper and kept 
inside the house, or an outdoor mash hopper, which is pro- 
tective against rain, may be used. The grain feed should be 
given in litter inside the house so that the birds will have to 
work two or more hours a day. Without this exercise, the 
birds will not lay near so well, as experiments have shown 
that by the sudden removal of the litter and feeding the birds 
their grain feed where they will have no efifort in securing 
it, results in a sharp declining curve in egg production. Daily 
exercise is essential for good health. 



72 POULTRY DISEASES 



DISPOSAL OF SICK AND DEAD BIRDS 

A strict adherence to the rules of sanitation would require 
that the well birds be removed from the buildings and enclos- 
ures in which sick birds are found, or in which birds have 
died of an infectious disease, and that they be not returned 
until after thorough disinfection of the buildings and the 
grounds. Such a procedure is not often practicable, and the 
poultryman is left the alternative of removing the sick or dead 
birds from the flock to prevent as far as possible an extension 
of the infection. 

Whenever an ailing bird is discovered in any flock, it should 
be immediately isolated. An ailing bird cannot take care of 
itself and will be overrun and imposed on by its mates. When 
the flock is fed, a moment's pause to check up all the birds to 
see that they are all eating and apparently healthy is the best 
plan, and any bird not feeling well can then be given attention 
by placing it in quarters where the other birds will not molest 
it and given attention needed and in most cases soon be 
returned to the flock in good health. Do not wait to dis- 
cover what is the matter with the bird before removing it from 
the flock, whether it is an infectious disease or a disease at 
all, or to decide as to its treatment. The fact that it is not 
acting normal is sufficient reason to have it removed and an 
examination made. Remove it from the well birds and decide 
upon further measures afterward. The same directions apply 
with equal force to the finding of dead birds among the well 
ones. Remove the carcass immediately, and unless there is 
conclusive evidence that death was not due to disease, disin- 
fect the place where it has lain. 

Sick birds should be placed by themselves, where they will 
not be molested by other birds or animals. They should be 
given as comfortable quarters as possible and be disturbed 
only for treatment. Unless the poultryman is very positive 
that he knows what ails the sick bird, and what means should 
be taken to prevent others in the flock from acquiring the 
same disease, he will usually find it best to call in a veterina- 
rian for consultation and leave the matter with him; par- 
ticularly is this true if there are a large number of birds on 
the premises or if the flock be one of high value, because of 
pure breeding. 

Immediately after removal of the dead bird from the flock, 
the poultrymen should satisfy himself as to the cause of its 
death. If it is obviously due to accident or if it is due to 
some disease already recognized as present in the flock, such 
action should be taken as the conditions seem to warrant, but 



^ 



SANITATION 73 

if there is any doubt as to what has occasioned the death, a 
careful autopsy should be held. Since a post mortem exami- 
nation means very little to one without at least some funda- 
mental training in pathology, and a veterinarian is close at 
hand, the poultryman will ordinarily find it advantageous to 
take the dead bird to a veterinarian for examination. This 
should be done immediately, before the changes incident to 
decomposition have masked the lesions which disease may have 
produced, or before parasites that may have caused death 
have changed their location or escaped from the body. 

THE MODE OF PERFORMING AUTOPSY 

Lay the carcass on its back, head from you, and remove 
the feathers from the under side of the body. With a sharp 
knife, open the abdominal wall, commencing close to the anus, 
passing the knife forward between the ribs and the breast- 
bone to a point just back of the wishbone or clavicle. In a 
like manner, open the left side, being careful not to injure 
any of the organs in the cavities. Now grasp the breastbone 
or sternum, pulling upward, forcing it forward, and it will 
break so that it will be easy to remove it. This will lay the 
cavities open so that all the organs can be observed, as illus- 
trated in the drawing shown in Fig. 2, to which refer for fur- 
ther description. 

The final disposal of carcasses of birds, whether dying from 
known or unknown causes, should be carefully attended to. 
The habit of throwing dead birds onto the nearest manure 
pile or into an unoccupied field, or in the weeds out of sight, 
cannot be too severely condemned. 

Among many people, there is a belief that if the body of 
a person that has died is not properly buried, the spirit of 
the departed will haunt its living relatives, and if they do 
not heed its warnings, bring great disaster to them. If poultry- 
men entertained a similar belief regarding the disposal of dead 
birds, it would save them much loss from disease and para- 
sites among their flocks. The carcass of a bird that has died 
of an infectious disease or of parasitism may be the means 
of infecting grounds and spreading disease among the flock 
many months later, or portions of it may be carried to neigh- 
boring farms with disastrous results to neighboring flocks. 

The carcasses of birds found dead in a flock should be 
burned, whether or not they have died of some cause other 
than disease ; the chances are that they harbor intestinal para- 
sites which are capable of being spread from the carcass to 
live birds. Where time cannot be taken to properly burn the 



74 POULTRY DISEASES 

dead birds, they should be buried deeply, so that they cannot 
be dug up by dogs, skunks or foxes, and so that worms may 
not carry infection from the carcass to the surface of the 
ground. 



CHAPTER III 

EXTERNAL PARASITES 

A parasite is an organism either animal or vegetable that 
lives with or upon another organism, either animal or vege- 
table. Bacteria are vegetable organisms that live upon an 
animal organism, as example, the bacterium pullorum caus- 
ing white diarrhea of baby chicks. Lice upon a hen is an 
example of an animal organism living upon an animal. 

Parasites are divided into external and internal groups. 
The group of external parasites live upon the skin surface of 
the body, as for example, lice. (3r external parasites may 
visit their host only for food, as for example, the mites or 
mosquito. Internal parasites live in the tissues or organs of 
the body, as for example, the intestinal worms or the gape 
worm. 

More than thirty species of external parasites infest fowls ; 
their economic importance is very great; fowls heavily infested 
with any of them are unprofitable, and many of these para- 
sites are so injurious as to kill the infested birds; especially 
is this so with mites and lice. 

It is necessary to know something of the life history of these 
parasites and their habits and especially where they breed 
to intelligently combat and eliminate them from the poultry 
and their houses. 

The external parasites affecting poultry are many kinds and 
varieties. Some of these are insect parasites, as mosquitoes, 
maggots of flies, as the blow fly, lice, chigger, fleas and the 
chicken hug. Other parasites are in the class of acari and 
include the scab or scaly leg parasite and a degraded acarus, 
the air sac mite, which while it infests the air sacs and from 
that standpoint would belong to the internal parasites yet from 
a classification standpoint, we are placing it with the external 
parasites. The bird does not escape the vegetable parasites 
as mold, as it is subject to ring worm. 

LICE OF BIRDS 

Infestation by lice is scientifically known as phthiriasis from 
a Greek word meaning a Louse. It is commonly known as 
lousiness. 



76 POULTRY DISEASES 

In its ordinary sense, the term louse comprises all the apter- 
ous insect parasites, or parasites without wings, which do not 
jump like fleas, and only accidentally quit their host. 

Lice of birds are placed in the family Philoptcridae, of 
which we are interested in six genera, as follows : Menopon, 
Gonoides, Gonoicotes, Lipeuriis, Docophorus and Nirmus. 

The members of the family Philopteridae have a mouth 
parts on the under side of the head. The mandibles are strong, 
maxillae wanting, tarsi short, of one or two joints, the claw 
meeting a tooth at the apex of the tibia ; mesothorax appar- 
ently wanting; abdomen having nine segments. 

The group is a large one, the species being so numerous that 
there is scarcely a bird but harbors one, and sometimes sev- 
eral, species of this family. 

The genera are, for the most part, easily separated ; Doco- 
phorus, by the presence of a movable appendage in front of 
the antennae ; Nirmus, by the presence of an immovable tooth 
in front of the antennae and the generally entire terminal seg- 
ment of the abdomen of the female. Goniocotes and Goniodes 
are robust forms, usually with large heads strongly curved in 
front. They differ from the former, having simple antennae 
in both sexes, while in the latter that are modified in the male. 
The former are also usually much the smaller. In Lipeurus 
the body is generally long and slender, the antennae of the 
males large and often with a complicated structure, while the 
terminal segment of the female is bilobed. 

Lice of birds embrace a group of biting lice ; their bodies 
are flat and their mouth parts are arranged for biting and 
cutting. They live upon feathers, epidermis or scales of the 
skin, and secretions of the body of the bird. As may be noted 
in Fig. 19, the mouth parts are located just back of the anten- 
nae and are not always visible. The antennae consist of live 
articles or joints each. The thorax in some species is long 
and narrow, in others short and globular. The thorax is pro- 
vided with three pairs of legs, w^hich are attached to the 
thorax. The free extremity of the legs is provided with two 
booklets or claws, which enable them to hold on to their host. 
The body and legs may be covered with a greater or less quan- 
tity of hair or bristles. 

As to the region in which lice infest, we may say that there 
are three groups. First, those that infest the body and called 
body lice; second, those that infest the head and neck, and 
called head lice, and third, those that infest the feathers, called 
the depluming lice. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



77 



LICE THAT INFEST THE BODY 

The most common lice which infest the body are those of 
the genera, Menopon, Gonoides and the Goniocotes, which are 
as follows : 

Menopon biscriatimi. — This is the large body louse and is seen in 
Fig. 19. This is the largest louse we will find upon the chicken. 
It is about one-twelfth of an inch in length. It is light in color. 
In Fig. 19, the small drawing indicates the actual size of this louse. 
This louse will also be found on the heads of small chickens as well 
as on the bodies of the hen. Its most favorite place is in the vent 
fluff. 

Menopon Pallidum. — This is the small body louse of the chicken. It 
is the smallest of the two Menopon and is the most common 
louse infesting the fowl. The annoyance this one species causes 
poultry is probably equal to that of all other species that infest 
fowls. It occurs in great abundance and on almost every fowl we 
have examined. This louse is easily distinguished from the other 
common species infesting the hen by its light color and its great 
activity among the feathers and over the body of the bird it infests. 
It moves so fast that it is rather difficult to catch one and they 
readily leave the bird and crawl in numbers upon the hands of the 
person holding the bird. Fig. 20 is a picture of the Menopon pal- 





FiG. 19. Menopon Biseriatum. Fig. 20. Menopon Pallidum. 

A, head provided with mouth parts for a, head; b, thorax provided with 

biting, feelers or antennae, and eyes; B, three pairs of legs; c, abdomen bearing 

legs attached to the thorax; C, abdomen. hairs. 

lidum and the difference in shape of head, thorax and body can be 
seen between this and the Menopon biseriatum and the other kinds 
of lice. This louse is reported to spread froni birds to other animals 
where it causes temporary parasitism, causing great discornfort of 
the newly infested animal. Where poultry houses are built onto 
barns there is grave danger of the birds becoming infested with 
mites or lice and these temporarily infesting animals kept in the 
barn. Great care is always necessary to keep the poultry free from 
parasites as they will not give satisfactory performance, or results 
when infested with parasites that irritate them and sap their lives. 
Goniocotes gigas. — Is the largest species of the genus Goniocotes 
and is recognizable by its large size and full rounded head as seen 
in Fig. 21. In color it is a light yellow with bands and outlines 
along the outer border of the abdomen. The female may reach the 
length of 4 mm. and the male 3mm. This specie has been found 



78 



POULTRY DISEASES 



rather common in North Carolina, but not apparently so in the west 
and middle west. It is also regarded as rather common in Australia 
and is also reported from England. This louse we have found on 
both body and neck, in the latter case where we observed them 
feeding on the barbs and barbules of the neck feathers. 




Fig. 21. A Photomicrograph 

OF THE GONIOCOTES GiGAS. 

Head showing antennae or 
feelers at 1 ; 2, the mouth parts; 
3, thorax with legs provided at 
extremity with small hooks at 
5 ; 6, abdomen. 



Goniodcs d isshn ilia . — This 
is a less common louse and 
is rather large in size. The 
head is subquadrate, the 
thorax short and narrow 
and the abdomen large and 
globular. 
The Goniocotes hologaster. — This louse is somewhat more com- 
mon than the previous one and is illustrated in Fig. 22. Its head 
is nearly quadrate, the thorax narrow and the abdomen short and 
globular. 



Fig. 22. Goniocotes Hologaster. 
a, mouth parts; b, antennae; c, booklets on 



the free extremity of the leg. 




LICE OF TURKEYS 

Goniodes stylifer. — Tliis is the common body louse of the turkey. 
Its head is well rounded in front, rather square cut, with scallops 
behind; the thorax is narrow and the abdomen large and globular. 
This louse is shown in Fig. 23. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



79 



Lipeurus polytrapcaius. — This is a long, slender louse, with two or 
three bristles extending from each segment of the abdomen. Its 
head is well rounded in front and the thorax is rather broad and 
long. 








Fig. 23. Goniodes Stylifer. 
a, mouth parts; b, antennae or feelers; c, 
legs; the drawing to the right of the head indi- 
cates the actual size. 

LICE OF DUCKS 

Menopon ohsciirimi. — The head is crescent-shaped in front and the 
abdomen has dark, lateral bands. It is dark fawn-colored. 

Lipeurus squalidus. — The head is narrow and somewhat elongated 
in front. There are six hairs on the front part of the head. This 
louse is reported as being common in some localities. 

LICE OF GEESE 

Lipeunis jejunus. — This louse is slender, pale yellowish-white. It is 
probably the most common of all the lice of geese. 

Trinoton continuum. — This is a fairly large louse. Its body is 
covered by hairs. It is quite common. 

LICE OF PIGEONS 

Lipeurus haculus. — This is the most common louse of the pigeon. 
It is seen in picture 24. This louse is long and slender. It is light- 
colored and the abdominal segments are provided with two or three 
hairs on each side. 




Fig. 24. Lipeurus Baculus. 

a, mouth parts; b, antennae; c, legs; drawing 
to the right of head indicates actual size. 



80 



POULTRY DISEASES 




Fig. 25. Eggs or Nits of the Goniodes Sty- 
lifer (greatly magnified). 
a, egg cemented to the barbes of the feather. 



Goniodes damicornis. — This louse is found most abundant on the 
body close to the oil gland at the base of the tail and upon the 
back, or they may be imbedded among barbules of the large wing 
feathers. The long slender Lipeurus is found over the surface of 
the body especially darting under cover, then on the surface, and 
are not apparently confined to one certain place. The Goniodes is 
rather common and is of a bright-brown color. The head is very 
rounded in front as can be seen by Fig. 29, which is a photomicro- 
graph of $ame. The head is strongly angular behind. In the male 
the abdomen is rather short and globular. 

LICE OF CANARIES 

The gray louse. — This louse is provided with a slender, elongated 
body and a large head, provided with strong jaws. It lives upon 
the feathers of the bird. It does not suck blood. Its sharp mouth 
parts irritate the skin and cause a discomfort to the bird. The eggs 
of the gray louse are cemented to the feathers and are easily 
removed. Fine sodium fluoride worked well into the feathers is 
best treatment. 

LICE THAT INFEST THE HEAD AND NECK 

Some species of lice infest the head and neck of the adult fowl, 
as well as of the baby chick and range birds. These lice cannot 
be found on any other part of the body. To find them one must 
part the feathers in the region of the neck, and the eggs, somewhat 
different from those of the body louse, are attached to the feathers, 
close to the roots. There is a tendency to deposit these eggs singly. 
The lice will be found close to the skin. 

Lipeurus infuscatus. — This louse is found only on the head and 
neck of fowls and is rather common. The louse is moderately long 

and slender and is seen highly magni- 
fied in Fig. 26. The front part of the 
head is rounded, the thorax is a trifle 
narrower than the head and the ab- 
domen is long and rather thin. 



Fig. 26. Lipeurus Infuscatus. 
a, mouth parts; b, abdomen; drawing to right 
of head indicates actual size. 




EXTERNAL PARASITES 



81 



Fig. 27 shows a seven-weeks'-old Single Comb White Leghorn 
cockerel infested badly with the head and neck lice. This bird, 
forty-eight hours before this picture was taken, was the strongest 
and most vigorous bird of the flock, crowing and master of the 
household. Note his dejected, partially comatosed condition, bluish 
colored comb turned over to one side, bluish face and wattles. He 
no longer presents a sleak coat he formerly had. He refuses all 
food. A nicotine powder thoroughly dusted among the neck 
feathers, to the skin, and a little care caused this bird to recover 
but the balance of the flock grew better and were stronger for 
several weeks after this attack. Lice stunts the growth of chickens 
and kills many. An examination of the body and vent fluff did not 
show lice as they were confined to the head and neck. In examin- 
ing birds it is essential to examine the head and neck as well as 
the body and vent fluff. 




Fig. 27. A Photograph of a Seven Weeks Old Single Comb White Leghorn 
Cockerel Badly Infested With the Head and Neck Lice. 

Note his dark comb, face, and wattles and the ruffled unkempt feathers. His 

drowsy condition. 

THE DEPLUMING LICE 

There are certain lice which live upon and destroy the large 
flight and tail feathers of fowls. These lice are easily seen, 
as they are dark in color, slender and long, and in prominent 
places. 

Lipeurus variahiHs. — This is the depluming louse of the fowl. This 
louse is about one-twelfth of an inch in length, whitish to dark in 
color as seen in Fig. 28. It is smooth and shining and the margins 
of the body have a tendency to be black. The head is large, rounded 
on the anterior margin, and the whole appearance is sufficiently 
distinct from any of the species infesting the fowl that with the 



82 



POULTRY DISEASES 



aid of the photomicrograph given in Fig. 28, there will be no diffi- 
culty in distinguishing it at a glance. They move with great rapidity 
among the webs of the flight and main tail feathers. 




Fig. 28. Lipeurus Variabilis, the Depluming Louse, Male 
AND Female. 

HOW AND WHERE LICE MULTIPLY 

The female lice are slightly larger than the males. The 
eggs vary in shape in some being oval as shown in Fig. 25, 
while others are of different shape, as for example, those of 
the head and neck lice, are lemon-shaped. The eggs are 
whitish or whitish-yellow in color and are commonly called 
nits. The eggs are cemented to the feather barbes and barbules 
with a kind of cement-like material with which the female is 
provided. The length of time for the lice eggs to hatch 
depends upon the temperature and weather conditions. If 
the weather conditions are favorable, the eggs may hatch in 
from ten days to three weeks. Lice live for a considerable 
period if on birds, several months under favorable conditions. 
Lice off the body of the bird will live but from seven to ten 
days. When the egg hatches, the young louse emerges from 
the tgg shell by breaking open the end of the egg as a cap, 
in much the same manner that a chick emerges from the egg. 
The young have much the same shape as the adults, usually 
the abdomen is rather undeveloped, which soon expands. The 
young lice can be distinguished from the adults by the fact 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 83 

that they are smaller and are lighter in color. The males are 
usually less numerous than the females. 

Lice hreed with great rapidity ; it has been com])uted that 
the unhindered reproduction of a single pair would reach the 
enormous total of 125,000 individuals in the third genera- 
tion, which may mature in eight weeks ! The time which 
elapses from the time a louse is in the egg stage till it is 
mature and reproducing will vary from two to four weeks, 
depending upon weather conditions. Lice multiply and develop 
very rapidly in warm or hot weather. 

EFFECTS OF LICE UPON THE FOWLS 

Chicks hatched in the incubator are free from lice and stay 
so until they are placed with lousy hens or chicks, or in quar- 
ters in which lousy hens and chicks have recently been kept. 
Lice produce much irritation ; the effect of large numbers upon 
birds is quite marked. The lousy birds scratch, pick at the 
feathers, show signs of being drowsy as seen in Fig. 27, may 
refuse to eat, and, in growing birds, development is retarded. 

Young chicks infested with lice often sit around, moping, 
with wings hanging down, and in a week or two may die. For 




Fig. 29. Goniodes Damicornis of the Pigeon 
(greatly enlarged). 

this reason, brooder chicks sometimes thrive better, grow 
faster and are freer from certain ailments than chicks hatched 
1)y the hen. It has been said that lousy birds show a greater 
tendency to wallow in the dust than those not infested. 

The effect of lice on older birds is not so severe as upon 
younger ones, but is noted in conditions of flesh and in the 
production of eggs. The irritation is sometimes so severe that 
setting hens desert their nests. Their combs may become dark 
or even black, shriveled, dry, hard and in upright combs they 
are noted to lop over to one side and laying hens soon fall 
in their ^gg yield. The birds are unable to rest day or night, 
become emaciated, and die. 



84 POULTRY DISEASES 

Tn looking for body lice, part the feathers in the vent fluff 
region or of the body and the bee will be seen running over 
the skin at the base of the feathers and among the feathers ; 
for the neck and head Hce part the feathers of the neck and 
the Hce will be seen as described above for the body lice. 
Unless the different locations are carefully examined, lice 
may be present and overlooked, since certain lice live on cer- 
tain parts of the body of the fowl. During the months of 
July and August, lice will be found most abundant because 
weather conditions are most favorable for their multiplication 
and life at this time of year. 

DEALING WITH LOUSE INFESTATION 
The Head and Neck Lice 

In setting a hen, dust her thoroughly, over body, vent fluff, 
neck and head, with some good nicotine lice powder, at the 
time of sitting. Dust her again thoroughly when she is taken 
from the nest and watch the heads of the baby chicks for the 
appearance of lice. Usually they appear in the region of the 
head and neck, on the baby chick, and if not attended to at 
once will kill the whole flock in very short order. For the 
head and neck lice, once they are on the baby chick, thoroughly 
work down in the skin of the baby chick, either some nicotine 
lice pow^der or sodium fluoride. Sodium fluoride because of 
its being a very fine powder works very nicely. The applica- 
tion should be repeated every four days till the lice and their 
nits or eggs all disappear. For the head and neck lice of 
adult birds, dusting similar to the baby chicks is required. 
We do not like grease in any form on the heads of baby 
chicks. The powder does not give them a "smeared-up" 
appearance and is nicer to apply and we have seen ill effects 
by the application of too much grease and allowing the baby 
chicks to run out in the hot sunshine. 

The Body Lice 

The most common lice of fowls are the body lice. Either 
a blue ointment or dusting powder may be used. In using the 
blue ointment, secure a pound can of fifty per cent mercurial 
ointment and a pound can of vaseline. Thoroughly mix the 
two together and apply by rubbing a piece as large as a pea 
or larger into the vent fluff. One good application will usually 
rid the fowl of infestation by the body lice. If it is the desire 
to use a powder, then we recommend either a nicotine lice 
powder or plain powdered sodium fluoride. Secure a pan 
sixteen inches in diameter and about four inches deep, grasp- 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 85 

ing the hen firmly by the legs with head down, hold her over 
the pan. Commence to work the lice powder through the 
feathers down to the skin by beginning at the vent fluff and 
gradually work toward the head. The pan will catch the 
excess powder, which can be used again. Repeat this dust- 
ing every four days till all lice have disappeared. At the 
same time the hens are dusted the house should be thoroughly 
cleaned, burning the litter, and thoroughly spray the house 
with a four per cent solution of some standardized coal tar 
disinfectant dip having a coefficiency of at least five or six. 

A third method not mentioned above is that of dipping. This 
can be done only in warm weather. Secure a washtub and 
fill with a four per cent solution of coal tar dip, such as Zeno- 
leum, and dip the hen by grasping her firmly by the legs and 
head, dragging her backward through the liquid, taking care 
not to get the head under the water or the solution in the eyes. 
It is better for two or three to handle the bird. This will allow 
of brushing the feathers the wrong way and agitating them in 
such a way as to get the dip to all parts of the body. One 
dipping usually rids the flock of lice. If the head gets under 
the solution, usually the bird will breathe and get some of 
the liquid into the lungs and a mechanical pneumonia result 
which often is fatal to the bird. If the dip, in this strength, 
gets into the eyes, it may cause an inflammation. Sodium 
fluoride, one ounce to the gallon of water, is also used. 

It is not advisable to dip birds of delicate constitution or 
which lack vigor, as considerable loss by deaths may result. 

At the North Carolina Experiment Station, we have used 
a lice powder for a number of years made in the following 
manner : 

When the treatment of individual birds for lice becomes neces- 
sary, some kind of powder thoroughly dusted into the feathers seems 
to be, on the whole, the most effective and advisable remedy. The 
powder used must be of such a nature, however, that it will give 
off an effective poisonous gas. The following powder will be effec- 
tive in dealing with lice infestation and can be made at a low cost 
of five cents a pound. In using any lice powder on poultry, it 
should always be remembered that a single application of it is not 
sufficient. When there are lice present on a bird there are always 
unhatched lice eggs or nits present and these are not killed by the 
Hce powder and will later hatch. It is necessary to make the sec- 
ond application to catch these, and it is often necessary to follow 
up with still more applications to catch those lice that were off 
the birds at the time of dusting, and later after the dust has shaken 
from the feathers, find their way on the bird again and reinfest her. 

In making this lice powder, take three parts of gasoline and one 
part crude carbolic acid, or if the crude carbolic acid cannot be 
obtained in its place use the same quantity of any standardized dip. 



86 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Mix these together and add gradually, while stirring, enough 
plaster of Paris to take up all the moisture. As a general rule, it 
will take about four quarts of plaster of Paris to one quart of the 
liquid. The exact amount, however, must be determined by the 
condition of the powder in each case. The liquid and dry plaster 
should be thoroughly mixed and stirred so that the liquid will be 
uniformly distributed through the mass of plaster. When enough 
plaster has been added the resulting mixture should be a dry, pink- 
l3rown powder having a fairly strong carbolic acid odor and a rather 
less pronounced gasoline odor. Do not use more plaster in mixing 
than is necessary to take up the liquid. When the mixing is com- 
plete it is well to pass the powder through a fly screen sieve so as 
to break up any large lumps that may have formed and to make a 
uniformly line powder. If the bird is infested with body lice a 
demonstration can be made by thoroughly working the powder into 
the feathers to the skin. The bulk of the application should be in 
the fluff around the vent and on the lower side of the body and in 
the fluff under the wings. Its ef^ciency, which is greater than that 
of any other louse powder known to the writer, can be very easily 
demonstrated by anyone to his own satisfaction by this test. After 
a lapse of about five minutes, shake the bird, loosing its feathers 
with the fingers at the same time, over a clean piece of paper. Dead 
and dying lice will drop on the paper in great numbers. Anyone 
who will try this experiment will have no further doubt of the won- 
derful efficiency and value of this powder. 




ViG. 30. An Inkxpi:nsivi:, Dukabi.k .Spray Pump. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 87 

After freeing the flock from lice, care should be exercised that a 
reinfestatioii is not brought about by the introduction of lousy 
birds. When birds have been to the show, or, when new birds are 
being introduced into the flock, they should be thoroughly examined 
for lice and dusted as a precaution against some that might have 
passed unobserved. In case lice are found present, keep the birds 
in quarantine till two or more dustings can be made and you are 
sure all danger of live lice are past. 

The infested henhouse should be thoroughly and frequently 
cleaned and the walls sprayed. The spray should contain 
some destroyer of parasites as carbolic acid, five per cent; 
coal tar dip, four per cent; or corrosive sublimate one to one- 
thousand. The perch poles should be scrubbed in boiling 
water and after drying in the sun should be saturated with 
kerosene. The litter and straw should be removed from the 
nests and burned and the nest boxes sprayed with coal tar 
dip or better painted with creosote. After the boxes dry, they 
should be refilled with nesting material consisting of straw or 
excelsior. The spraying should be done with a spray pump 
as seen in Fig. 30, or some other equally good spraying appa- 
ratus so that the liquid will be driven into the cracks and 
crevices and destroy all the parasites. 

SCABIES OF FOWLS 

Lice are a group of insect parasites having six legs. We 
now come to another kind of parasites that belong to another 
group and, in the adult stage, are provided with eight legs. 
This group of parasites are the acarids, or mites, as they are 
commonly called on account of their extremely small size many 
of which are scarcely visible to the eye. Lice and the acari are 
widely distributed and are of great economic importance. 

There are numerous species of mites that infest fowls. Some 
live on the feathers and scales of the skin, others bore into the 
skin, and still others inhabit the interior of the body and from 
this standpoint could be considered internal parasites. 

There is one form of scabies called depluming scabies that 
is very rare, and so far as the author knows has not been re- 
ported in this country. It affects the body of both chickens 
and pigeons. The one on chickens is the Sarcoptes laevis 
variety gallinae, and the one on pigeons is the Sarcoptes laevis 
variety columbae. 

The acarid parasites for birds are placed under the follow- 
ing genera: sarcoptes, cytodites, trombidium, and dermanys- 
sus. Unlike the various genera of lice, the scab parasites differ 
greatly in the effects which they produce, and therefore a sepa- 
rate discussion of each one will be given. 



88 POULTRY DISEASES 

SCALY LEGS OF FOWLS 

Scaly legs of fowls is also called foot mange, or scabies of 
the legs. 

Scabies, mange, or scaly legs are three words to indicate the 
piling up of scales caused by the irritation of the parasite, the 
oozing out of minute quantities of a straw colored fluid called 
serum, from the injured skin, the drying of this serum, and 
the gradual accumulation of scab material till large areas or 
patches of scab is visible. 

Scaly legs is a condition that is very common and especially 
where the fowl's sanitary condition is not closely looked after. 
Scaly legs constitutes leg scabies, and is caused by a parasite 
called the Sarcoptes mutans variety gallinae. 

THE~SARCOPTES MUTANS VARIETY GALLINAE 

Description. — This parasite is one of the same family that infest 
horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, dogs and cats. That particular branch 
of the family affecting chickens is distinguished by calling it "variety 
gallinae"; gallinae being a Latin word meaning "of the chicken." 
Owing to the small size of the parasite, It is often called a mite, 
though the term mite as ordinarily used refers to the red mite 
of the perch poles — the Trombidium holosericeum. Fig. 31 illus- 
trates the parasite causing scaly legs. It is magnified 100 times; 
the actual size of the parasite is shown by the small dot in the square 
at the upper right-hand side of the drawing. In the drawing it 
will be noted that the legs are short and strong and its mouth 
parts arranged for biting the skin. They live upon serum that 
seeps out at the point attacked and this small quantity of serum 
drying adds to the gradually accumulating scabs. For a picture 
of scaly legs, see Fig. 32. 



Fig. 31. Sarcoptes Mutans, Varikty 
Gallinae. 

a, mouth parts; b, short, stubby legs; c, dot 
indicates actual size of parasite. 




EXTERNAL PARASITES 



89 




Fig. 32, Scaly Legs or- Scabies, 

a, mass of scabs due to dried serum 
that seeps from the injured parts; b, 
scale of leg forced up and out of place 
by accumulating dried serum. 



Life History. — The female lays her eggs under the scabs, where 
in about ten days they hatch, if conditions are favorable. The young 
mites called larvae are provided with only three pairs of legs and 
are not provided with sexual organs. These young scab parasites 
pass through several moults, in which each time the skin is shed, 
and are finally developed into the mature or adult stage. In the 
adult stage they are provided with four pairs of legs and are sexually 
mature. 

How the Parasites are Spread. — The tearing off of the scabs favors 
the escape of the parasites, which in warm weather may live in the 
filth, roosts, nests, or other parts of the building for at least thirty 
days, and may in that time find their way upon other birds and 
infesting them produce scaly legs in them. Thus birds become 
infested by being placed in infested quarters, that is, in quarters in 
which birds suffering with scaly legs are or have recently been kept, 
or by an infested bird being introduced into a healthy flock, or by 
the bird being transported in coops, or placed in coops, as at shows, 
in which infested birds have recently been kept. 

Symptoms. — This parasite attacks chickens, turkeys and 
cage birds, but the writer has not observed it infesting water 
fowls as ducks and geese. The parasites always attack the un- 
feathered portion of the legs and feet, especially the shanks 
and upper portions of the toes. The minute parasite works its 
way under the scales of the legs and there irritates the tissue 
by attacking it with its strong mouth parts. As a result of this 
irritation a vesicle or small blister appears. The blister is prac- 
tically microscopic in size. Later this vesicle or blister rup- 
tures and the small amount of serum it contains dries and adds 
to the already accumulating scabs. These scales finally ac- 
cumulate in such large masses that the normal scales of the 



90 POULTRY DISEASES 

legs disappear and the shanks present an unsightly appearance 
as seen in Fig. 32. 

The parasite can be found as a minute white speck in the 
serum between the scabs and the leg; Both legs are usually 
affected at the same time. Itching is present and the bird may 
pick at the affected part. Itching is more intense at night. 
The birds may become weak, stop laying, and even die from 
the effects of the irritation and loss of rest. 

How to Treat and Rid the Birds and Premises of Scab Para- 
sites. — The scabby shanks and feet should be soaked in soapy 
warm water to which has been added enough dip to make a 
four per cent solution. Many of the scabs can readily be re- 
moved, if one will take time, and in valuable birds it will pay. 
If the bird is of insufficient value to justify the expenditure of 
time and labor, kill the bird and burn the affected shanks and 
feet. In these cheaper birds it is good treatment to saturate the 
shanks and feet with pure kerosene repeating this treatment in 
two weeks. It is also good treatment to follow the saturation 
of the affected parts, at the end of four days, with carbolized 
vaseline and after three days more much of the scab material 
can be rubbed off. If the shanks and feet are scrubbed with 
the antiseptic material the normal scales of the shanks and 
upper parts of the toes can be preserved provided the disease 
has not progressed too far. After removal of all the scabs 
possible, scrub thoroughly using a nail brush and the fiat end 
of a wooden tooth pick removing all scales possible. After 
this is done apply just a little oil of paraffine, or petrol, or even 
vaseline and rub thoroughly to remove all excess. Repeat the 
treatment in ten days and follow up with subsequent applica- 
tions till the bird is well. 

Kerosene Emulsion May be Used and is made as follows: — 
Kerosene or coal oil, one-half gallon ; common soap, two 
ounces ; water, one quart. Dissolve the soap by boiling in the 
water, add this solution boiling hot, to the kerosene and stir 
with an egg-beater, or otherwise violently agitate. When ready 
for use take one part of the emulsion and add to this nine 
parts of water. 

Lime and Sidphur Dip may be nsed. — It is made as follows : 
Unslaked lime, one-third of a pound, sulphur one pound, water 
four gallons. This mixture should be boiled for two hours and 
the amount lost by evaporation made up by adding water. 
The slaking lime acts as a solvent for the sulphur ; dissolved 
sulphur is one of our very best agents to kill parasites. This 
well-known parasiticide used warm and scrubbed thoroughly 
under the scales is very effective. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 91 

Commercial Disinfectant Dips may be used. — A four per 
cent solution in water of any of the standardized coal tar dis- 
infectant dips with a coefficiency of at least five or six will 
give good results. They must be used warm and the affected 
parts scrubbed thoroughly to remove all scabs possible and 
repeat this treatment every four days till a cure is effected. 

Treatment of Houses and Yards. — The scab parasites that 
find their way off the infested birds will be found on the perch 
poles and nests and in other parts of the house and yard and 
a thorough disinfection as given under the discussion of lice 
will be effective in ridding the premises so that these or other 
birds that may be placed in these houses and runs will not 
become infested. 

AIR SAC DISEASE 

A disease of the air sacs, bronchi and lungs is caused by 
minute mites which in reality are degraded scab parasites. 
They appear to the naked eye like minute, rather yellowish- 
white granules running over the surface of the walls of the 
air sacs, trachea and bronchi of fowls laid open, that have 
died of this air sac mite infestation. 

The disease is rather wide spread as specimens have been 
studied, by the writer, in infested birds from Colorado, .North 
Carolina, New York and Pennsylvania. This is a very serious 
disease of birds, as it is exceedingly difficult to obtain desired 
results in treating affected birds. 

Air sac disease is caused by Cytodites nudus, also called the 
Cytoleichus sarcoptides, and the Cnemidocoptes mutans, com- 
monly known as the air sac mite. 

Cytodites Nudus 

Description. — As seen by Fig. 33, the body of this parasite is ovoid 
in shape, whitish in color, provided with a conical mouth part, 
through which it sucks fluid or serum from the surface on which 
it is found. The legs are rather short, conical in shape, and in both 
males and females the free extremity of each leg is provided with 
a cup-shaped sucker called an ambulacrum. These suckers aid 
the mite in holding on to objects and in moving about. The legs 
are each provided with five segments or articles. 

Life History. — The ovigerous female lays eggs, as a rule, but at 
times has been observed to deposit eggs ready to hatch and even 
lay young larvae. The larvae are not provided with sex organs and 
have only three pairs of legs. The young mite goes through several 
moults and finally arriving at the sexually mature stage and pro- 
vided with four pairs of legs. 

Symptoms. — The air sac mite lives in the air sacs, lungs, 
bronchi, and air sac extensions of the bones of the fowl. At 
autopsy they are easily seen in the abdominal air sacs of 



92 POULTRY DISEASES 

infested birds, because these air sacs lying along either inner 
side of the abdominal wall are opened in cutting and expos- 
ing the abdominal organs and are then in plain view. Chickens 
appear to be the most often infested, though pigeons and other 
birds have been reported as being infested. If only a few para- 
sites are present they may not cause any noticeable symptoms, 
but when they crowd the bronchi in large numbers they may 
cause fits of coughing by irritation of the mucous membrane 
lining these parts, reaching of the neck, partial asphyxiation 
with bluish comb, face and wattles. There may be a rattling in 
the throat due to the accumulation of mucus in the trachea and 
bronchi. The bird will become thin in flesh and even become 
emaciated, it will appear dull, stay away from the other mem- 
bers of the flock, and in the long protracted cases where the 
bronchi are not crowded, the comb may be pale in color. The 
wings will droop, there will be labored or difficult breathing 
and death finally ends the scene. 

Postmortem Appearance. — ^All internal organs will appear normal 
in size and color. By a careful examination of the abdominal and 
other air sacs as well as of the trachea and bronchi, the mites may 
be seen as minute yellowish-whitish bodies crawling over the sur- 
face. These parasites are scarcely visible to the eye. 




Fig. 33. Cytodites Nudus or Air S.\c Mite. 

a, rostrum; b, ambulacrum; c, pedicle of am- 
bulacrum. 

The air sac mite has also been reported as infesting the liver, 
kidneys and other abdominal organs, in which cases they pro- 
duce yellowish i:)earl-like nodules or tubercles. 

Treatment. — If the flock shows numerous birds infested it 
is best to kill all the fowls. Great care should be exercised 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



93 



not to sell any of the birds as breeders or on a market where 
there is danger of them being bought for a family or farm 
flock. The houses and yards so infested should not be used 
again for birds for at least one year. All birds found infested 
should be cremated by burning. It is almost impossible to 
eliminate the disease from a flock once infested except by 
slaughter and a long time disinfection by not using the prem- 
ises for several months for birds. 

RED MITE INFESTATION OF THE HENHOUSE 

Red mite infestation is caused by the chigger. Of the 
chiggers there are two kinds, namely, the Trombidium holoseri- 
ceuni, and the Dermanyssus gallinae. The red mite is one of 
the most persistent and injurious of the pests of the henhouse. 
They gather on the fowls, especially at night, and suck their 
blood. 

The Trombidium Holosericeum 

This parasite is the common chigger, often called jigger, of the 
henhouse. 




Fig. 34. 



A Photomicrograph of the Trombidium Holoseri- 
ceum OR Chicken Mite. 



1, a view of the chigger from top or dorsum; 2, a side view. 

Description. — The full-grown mite is about 1 mm. in length and 
a light-gray or whitish color, with dark patches showing through 



94 POULTRY DISEASES 

the skin, but when full of blood have a distinct red to bluish color. 
The body is oval as will be seen by Fig. 34 and in the adult stage 
are provided with four pairs of legs. In the young or larval stage 
they are provided with but three pairs of legs and no generative 
organs. The distal end of each leg is provided with two small hooks 
or claws, with which it clings to objects and which enable it to crawl 
about. Its mouth parts are conical in shape and arranged for 
wounding the skin and sucking the blood. 

Life History. — Mites multiply by laying eggs. The swarm in the 
cracks and crevices of the henhouse, and especially on the perch 
poles, nests, dropping boards and finally on the walls and floor. 
When numerous they will be found over all surrounding objects 
and may prove a great pest to man and animals that come in their 
way. Rotten eggs are good sources and a broken egg will invite 
myriads to the nest. They come from the cracks and crevices at 
night to prey upon the fowls. 

The eggs are laid in the cracks and crevices of the perch poles 
and the mites can be found in clusters, even balls, on the under side 
of the perch poles and where the poles rest on their supports at 
the ends. When the perch poles have been repeatedly painted with 
creosote so that mites cannot live upon them they have been noted 
to commence their infestation in the nests. Sparrows are known 
to have carried them from one premise and from one house to 
another. Sitting hens are apt to become attacked and the hen and 
her brood need be carefully looked after frequently as once infested 
the entire brood will soon succumb. Sitting hens leave their nests 
and in some cases are killed by the myriads of mites attacking them. 
In the cracks of the perch poles where the mites breed very fast 
in hot weather, a white fuzzy material accumulates. This is the 
moults of the 3'oung parasites and a keen observer is quick to note 
when these parasite signs are present. Poultrymen claim there is 
a peculiar odor given off by mites and that they can detect the odor 
as soon as stepping into the infested house. If the temperature is 
warm, the eggs laid in the cracks will hatch in a very few days. 
The young mite has six legs and no sexual apparatus. After going 
through a few moults they arrive at the adult stage at which time 
they are provided with eight pairs of legs and sexual organs and 
they are now ready to reproduce. The parasite multiplies very fast 
in the warmer parts of the summer, July and August, when condi- 
tions are more favorable for its propagation. 

Symptoms of Mite Infestation. — To examine premises to 
see if mite infestation is present, examine the under sides of 
the perch poles, the nests, dropping boards and in sitting hens 
and brooding hens their roosting coops should be examined. 
The mites are found in swarms and are concealed during the 
day in the cracks of the perch poles, dropping boards, nests, 
floor and walls. The mites come out at night, swarming over 
the fowls to suck their blood. The mite by means of its conical 
shaped mouth parts, referred to above, wounds the skin and 
sucks the blood of the fowl. The fasting parasite is white in 
color, but as it takes in blood its color changes to a bright 
red, the blood it engorges being reflected through its skin. In 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 95 

the older mites, the color of the engorged ones may vary from 
a bright red to a bluish color. The symptoms as we have 
observed them are similar to those of lice. The birds become 
unthrifty, laying is interfered with and finally the hens may 
cease laying, sitting hens desert their nests with pale comb, 
face and wattles. The afflicted birds show an unkempt appear- 
ance of the feathers. Many hens are found dead under the 
roosts in the morning. Examination of such birds, and of the 
perch poles, nests, dropping boards, walls and floors, revealed 
millions of mites. 

How to Rid Premises of tJie Mites. — The same treatment as 
for lice should be followed. Absolute cleanliness, thorough 
spraying with a four per cent solution of some standardized 
coal tar disinfectant dip, repeated every three days till all mites 
have disappeared. Painting the perch poles several times, three 
days apart with creosote. It is a good plan to also paint the 
inside of the nests, also sitting and brooding coops with creo- 
sote. 

In order to know definitely the exact value of the many agents 
recommended for the destruction and prevention of mites and lice 
the writer made extensive laboratory tests and has recorded these 
results in the following paragraphs: 

There is a common belief that dry tobacco clippings, sulphur, 
paris green, and a host of liquids, are great destroyers of the 
formidable foes of the poultry house, but no one so far as we could 
find, from the literature at hand, had actually made tests to prove 
it. It was therefore thought best to try a host of these agents. 

Mode of the Tests. — The tests were run either in open tumblers or 
sauce dishes so as to have an abundance of air present and to have 
the tests as nearly under normal conditions as possible. 

Agents Used. — The agents used fall into three classes, namely : dry 
powders which give off poisonous gases, liquids which may kill 
by coming in direct contact with the parasite, and liquids and pow- 
ders that give off gases poisonous to the parasite. Tests were made 
with sulphur, air slaked lime, paris green, naphthalene, gasoline, 
carbolic acid, insect powder, tobacco stems from a tobacco fac- 
tory, crude carbolic acid, five per cent carbolic acid, naphthalene 
in kerosene, one and two per cent kreso dip. ten per cent formalde- 
hyde, pyrethrum, and a nicotine powder prepared in this laboratory. 

Sulphur. — Flowers of sulphur was placed in the bottom of two tum- 
blers and several hundred mites, some very vigorous, were placed 
on top of the sulphur. At the end of five hours the mites 
were still walking over the sulphur. Dry powdered sulphur has 
apparently no destructive action upon them. 

Air Slaked Lime. — Air slaked lime was placed in the bottom of a 
tumbler. At the end of twenty-four hours the mites had all accumu- 
lated in a cluster in the center of the dry lime. Upon being poured 
out on a paper they were still found to be vigorous. Dry air slaked 
lime has apparently no injurious effect upon mites. 



96 POULTRY DISEASES 

Paris Green. — Dry paris green was placed in the bottom of a 
tumbler and several hundred mites were placed in the powder and 
stirred. At the end of forty-eight hours the mites had formed in a 
cluster in the edge of the powder. Upon being removed they were 
found to be as vigorous as before being placed in the paris green. 
Dry paris green apparently has no ill effect upon mites. 

Naphthalene, Poivdered Moth Balls. — A quantity of powdered moth 
balls were placed in the bottom of a tumbler and several hundred 
vigorous mites placed on the surface. At the end of thirty minutes 
motion was not so active and at the end of forty-five minutes all 
motion had ceased and upon being removed and placed upon paper 
and examined, all were found to be dead. 

Tobacco Bits. — Bits of tobacco leaves, the sweepings from the floor 
of a tobacco factory, were placed in the bottom of a tumbler 
and several hundred very active mites were placed in this tobacco. 
Frequent observations were made and at the end of seventy-two 
hours the mites were as active as when they were placed in the 
tumbler. 

Insect Powder. — A powder prepared in this laboratory consists of 
gasoline three parts, crude carbolic acid one part and plaster of paris 
sufficient to make a rather dry mixture. This is passed through a 
sieve allowing the sieved powder to drop onto a dry paper and 
after a few minutes it is placed into tight jars and kept till needed. 
It should be used in a few days after being prepared as the gaso- 
line soon evaporates. A quantity of this powder was placed in the 
bottom of a tumbler and several hundred very active mites were 
placed in the material and mixed with it. At the end of one minute 
all mites were dead. 

Five Per Cent Carbolic Acid Solution in Water. — A quantity of a 
five per cent watery solution was poured out into a saucer and 
several hundred very active mites were placed on one edge of the 
saucer and the dish then tilted till the mites were all wet, then the 
liquid drained from them, the mites remaining on the wet surface 
for observation. In thirty seconds the movements were retarded 
and at the end of sixty seconds all mites were dead. 

One Per Cent Naphthalene in Kerosene. — One per cent powdered 
moth balls dissolved in kerosene was tested. A quantity of this fluid 
was poured in a saucer and several hundred mites placed on the 
opposite side of the saucer, then immersed as in the preceding test. 
In thirty seconds all mites in the test were dead. 

Crude Carbolic Acid. — Pure crude carbolic acid was poured in a 
saucer and several hundred mites placed on one side, were immersed 
as in the preceding test. In twenty seconds all mites in the test 
were dead. 

One Per Cent Kreso Dip. — This liquid was poured in a saucer and 
several hundred mites subjected to a bath as in the preceding tests. 
At the end of four minutes motion slowed and at the end of ten 
minutes all mites in the test were dead. 

Two Per Cent Kreso Dip. — The test was conducted as the preced- 
ing. At the end of two minutes motion was retarded and all mites 
in the test were dead at the end of four minutes. 

Ten Per Cent Formaldehyde. — The test was conducted as in the 
preceding. At the end of ten minutes all the mites in the test were 
dead. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 97 

Pyrethrum. — Commonly called insect powder. Lice covered with 
pyrethrum powder were rendered inactive in six to ten minutes. 

A powder also prepared in this laboratory as follows, kills lice in 
thirty seconds: Nicotine 54 ounce, naphthalene 1 ounce, standard- 
ized coal tar disinfectant dip 4 ounces. Sufficient plaster of paris 
is mixed with this to make a slightly moist mixture, this is then 
passed through a screen and used at once. 

There was also tried the following mixture: Nicotine, 40 per cent 
aqueous solution, 40 drops, water four ounces, plaster of paris one 
pint. As soon as these substances are mixed together they heat, 
due to the plaster of paris being converted back into gypsum. Dur- 
ing this heating process the powder must be occasionally stirred. 
This powder kills lice in thirty seconds and has been found still 
effective after being prepared seven months. The sulphate of nico- 
tine is also effective. 

It was found that though sulphur in solution is an efficient de- 
stroyer of parasites, that although paris green in solution is a violent 
poison because of its arsenic content and although tobacco leaves 
contain nicotine which, when extracted is a destroyer of parasites, 
yet these agents in their dry state do not destroy mites and lice. 
From tobacco leaves and stems there is probably given off a very 
small amount of free nicotine, but it is not in sufficient quantities 
to in any way injure the parasites. The active principle of tobacco 
is nicotine. Of the nicotine present in tobacco usually 60 per cent 
is free nicotine and there can be secured the additional 40 per cent 
by the addition of an alkali such as caustic soda or concentrated 
ammonia. In the preparation of lice powder using the leaves or 
stems it is necessary to finely triturate the leaves and stems mak- 
ing it like snuff so that the nicotine will be liberated in large enough 
quantities to readily destroy the lice. Free nicotine is an extremely 
volatile substance and if such triturated tobacco is allowed to stand 
for an extended period of time there will be a material reduction 
of the nicotine content. Tobacco contains 0.6 per cent nicotine in 
high-grade tobacco to 8.0 per cent nicotine in poor-grade tobacco. 

Naphthalene or powdered moth balls, on account of its volatile 
substance emitted, kills all mites in forty-five minutes. 

Insect powder containing gasoline and crude carbolic acid, on 
account of its volatile substances given off, killed all mites in one 
minute. 

The test solutions used killed the mites in the following length of 
time: Crude carbolic acid, twenty seconds; five per cent carbolic 
acid, one minute; one per cent naphthalene in kerosene, thirty sec- 
onds; one per cent kreso dip, ten minutes, and two per cent in four 
minutes; ten per cent formadehyd, in ten minutes. Formadehyd is 
a slow parasiticide and must be in quite strong solution. Its gas 
does not destroy fiies. Free nicotine in one-fourth of one per cent 
kills lice in thirty seconds. 

In order that parasiticides be effective in the destruction of the 
mites and lice they must either be in solution or be capable of giving 
off volatile gases which in themselves are destructive. 

Dermanyssus Gallinae — Dermanyssus Avium 

Descnption. — By referring to Figure 35 it will be seen that the 
body of this mite or chigger differs from the Trombidinin holoser- 
iceimi in that it is ovopyriform in shape instead of oval. 



98 POULTRY DISEASES 

The diameter of the posterior third is greater than that of the 
anterior third. The abdomen and legs are provided with rather 
short bristles. Its mouth parts are rather conical in shape and 
arranged for injuring the skin and sucking blood. The color varies 
according to the amount of blood contained within the intestinal 
tract, varying from yellow to a yellowish-red. The free extremity 
of the legs is provided with an apparatus which enables them to 
hold on or cling to objects and to move about rapidly. 




Fig. 35. Dermanyssus Gallinae. 
a, conical-slTaped rostrum; b, palpus. 

Life History. — The female, like the female of the preceding para- 
site described, lays her eggs in the cracks and crevices and the filth 
of the floors and nests, where they hatch out in a few days, if the 
temperature is favorable. The young, six-legged asexual larva goes 
through several moults. Finally maturing into the adult, sexual, 
eight-legged parasite. 

Symptoms of Dermanyssus Infestation. — This parasite lives in the 
poultry houses and dove-cotes, hiding in the straw of the nests, 
cracks and crevices of the roosts, and other places of concealment 
in the daytime. It comes out at night and makes its attack. Few 
of these parasites are to be found on the birds, chickens, or pigeons, 
in the daytime, but at night they may be numerous. Birds so har- 
rassed at night cannot sleep or rest and soon become emaciated. 
The laying hens will leave their nests and even cease laying. Birds 
may be found dead under the roosts in the mornings from the attack 
of these mites. 

These parasites may also attack horses and other animals kept 
close to the quarters of infested birds; they cause irritation, the 
animal scratches, rubs, and unable to rest at night, becomes thin 
in flesh and weak. Persons may be annoyed by them. 

Treatment. — The same as has been outlined for lice. (See page 84.) 

FLEAS AFFECTING BIRDS 

Fleas are jumping insects that affect the skin of birds, man 
and animals. There are two kinds infesting fowls, one tech- 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



99 



nically known as the Pulex Avium has been observed in West- 
ern United States, and the second, the stick-tight flea, or Sar- 
copsylla GalHnacea is found in the sandy regions of the South- 
ern and more warm states, and adheres or sticks to the skin, 
especially in the region of the head, neck and under sides of 
the wings. 

The Pulex Avium 

Description. — This is the common chicken flea. It resembles 
to some extent the flea that infests dogs, cats and man ; how- 
ever a microscopic study shows it to be a distinct species. 
Fig. 36 illustrates this parasite. It is provided with antennae 
or jointed feelers. In the larval state its mouth parts are 
arranged for mastication and in the adult for wounding the 
skin and sucking blood. It is flattened laterally, the thorax 
being a trifle deeper than the head and is provided with three 
pairs of legs, of which the posterior pair is longer than the 
others, giving the insect great power to jump. The free 
extremity of the legs is provided with two booklets or claws. 
In color, the chicken flea is light or dark brown. 




Fig. 36. Pulex Avium. 

a, antennae; b, stylet; c, booklets on free 

extremity of leg. 

Life History. — The female lays about twenty oval brown 
eggs in some dirty, dusty place, such as the floor, cracks or 
crevices or nests. These eggs hatch in a few days, usually 
six to twelve, if the temperature is warm and from them come 
wormlike larvae composed of thirteen segments each. The 
mouth parts are arranged for mastication. The larval stage 
lasts about eleven days ; they then pass through the pupa stage 
in a tough brown cocoon. The pupa stage lasts about four- 
teen days, when the six-legged adult flea emerges from the 
cocoon. 

Symptoms. — The presence of fleas in the flock may first be 
noticed by the insects getting on and attacking persons who 
enter the poultry houses. Investigations under such condi- 
tions reveal large numbers. It has been noted that where this 



100 POULTRY DISEASES 

kind of flea attacks flocks that lice and mites usually disappear. 
The fleas attack the birds day or night and suck blood. If in 
large number they continually harass the fowls. The fowls 
cannot rest at night, fall ofif in Ggg production, become emaci- 
ated and finally may die. Growing birds have stary unkempt 
appearance, do not make proper growth, become poor in flesh 
and may even die from the attacks. 

Treatment. — Dipping the hens in a four per cent solution 
of any of the coal tar disinfectant dips with a coefficiency of 
four or five will be effective. This must be done only in very 
warm weather and the dip must be body temperature, that is, 
about 100 to 105° Fah. Weak birds sometimes die as a result 
of the shock of dipping. After dipping, do not allow the 
birds to get into the sun until they are dry. 

A dusting powder containing snuff or nicotine to the extent 
of at least one-fourth per cent nicotine, or sodium fluoride. 
One ounce sodium fluoride to the gallon of water or a four per 
cent coal tar disinfectant dip makes a reliable dip. The prem- 
ises must be thoroughly cleaned and sprayed with a four per 
cent dip. 

Sarcopsylla Gallinacea 
, (Stick-Tight Flea or Jigger) 

The stick-tight flea is smaller than the flea just described. 




Fig. 37. Sarcopsylla Gallinacea. 
1, male; 2, females; 3, young. 



1 



By comparing Fig. 36 with that of 37, the reader can readily 
see the gross differences. The Sarcopsylla Gallinacea is much 
shorter and different in shape. These fleas are found par- 
ticularly in sandy soil of the warmer parts of the country. 
They are commonly called stick-tight fleas because they stick 
tightly to the skin. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 101 

Description. — The female is 0.75 mm. to 1.0 mm. in length and 
the male a trifle shorter. Its posterior legs are much longer than 
the anterior pair. The posterior angles of the metathoracic scales 
are angled. The eyes and antennae are located in the posterior part 
of the head. It is brown to brownish-black in color. 

Habitat. — It lives in shady places, under old houses, on earthen 
floors, in filth. It is a veritable pest to adult birds and especially 
to young chickens and turkeys. 

Life History. -^It lays its eggs in dirty filthy corners or sand or 
while on the bird, under which conditions the eggs roll off on the 
ground, where they hatch out and go through the changes which 
bring them to the adult stage. The eggs are oval in shape and white 
in color, while the eggs of the Pulex Avium are brown. 

Condition Produced. — It does not have the tendency to hop like 
the Pulex Avium, but implants itself on the heads, necks, and under 
the wings of fowls and especially the young. With its powerful 
proboscis it pierces the skin and sucks the blood and remains in one 
position, burying itself in the upper layers of the skin producing 
irritation and inflammation. When removed, they may jump like 
species of the pulex. 

Treatment. — Grease the affected parts of the head and neck and 
the affected parts under the wings with lard or vaseline in which 
there has been rubbed a small quantity of sulphur. The vaseline 
or lard dissolves the sulphur and this is destructive to^ the fleas. 
The lard also by sealing the breathing pores of the flea is destruc- 
tive. A small application of kerosene is also destructive to the fleas. 
Saturate the infested "premises with kerosene or a four percent 
solution of some coal tar disinfectant dip with a coefficiency of at 
least 5. 

TICK INFESTATION 

In some parts of the Southern United States and in Africa 
and India, reports are to the effect that chicken ticks are quite 
troublesome. In some parts of the Southern United States 
one variety, the Argas Miniatiis, is quite common ?nd quite 
troublesome to poultry raisers. 

The Argas Miniatus 

Description.— The body is flat and thin. The posterior end is 
more bluntly rounded than the anterior. The broadest portion of 
the adult tick is posterior to the fourth pair of legs. It has an 
overreaching dorsal surface that hides the mouth parts. The hood 
projects above the head or capitulum and spreads out on the level 
of the dorsal or top surface. The lateral margins are thin or only 
slightly thickened. The mouth parts are provided with mandibles, 
which have hook-like teeth or denticles at the free extremity and 
an under part or hypostome provided with six rows of irregularly- 
arranged, toothlike denticles. With this apparatus the tick holds 
on to its host. At either side of this apparatus there is a palpus, 
an articulated, finger-like structure taking the place of antennae as 
found in insect parasites. The surface of the tick is slightly rough- 
ened by irregular zigzag wrinkles or folds, which are absent only at 
certain points occupied by nearly circular pits; the latter are more 
or less numerous and scattered; the larger pits form a radiating 
series on the dorsal and the ventral surface, the median posterior 
row being the longest. The eyes are absent. 



102 



POULTRY DISEASES 



This tick is a blood sucker making its attacks at night. After 
feeding upon the blood of the fowl it leaves the bird and retreats to 
the cracks, crevices, or other darkened hiding places where it re- 
mains during the day. In its hiding place, off of the bird, it lays its 
eggs in masses containing many hundreds. 

Life History. — After the eggs are laid they hatch in from three to 
four weeks. The young, or larvae are six legged and very active, 
attacking the fowls as readily in the day time as at night. The 
larvae attach themselves to the skin and feed for five or more days, 
remaining firmly attached all this time. At the end of this feeding 
period the young detach themselves and crawl away from their 
host, hiding in some crack, or crevice near by. The larva molt in 
about a week, and are now provided with four pairs of legs; this is 
the first nymphal stage, appearing like miniature adults. Night 
feeding now takes place and in ten to twelve days they molt again 
and the second nymphal stage is reached. Upon reaching this stage 
it again attaches itself to the fowl becoming engorged in about an 
hour and at the end of another week molts a third time reaching 
the adult stage. The adults are able to engorge themselves in 
twenty to forty minutes. 




Fig. 38. Argas Miniatus. 
Tlie drawing at upper right hand corner is natural size. 



Symptoms. — Large numbers attacking the fowl extract consider- 
able quantities of blood. They also cause much irritation and the 
birds are not able to rest at night. As a result the birds becorne un- 
thrifty, laying hens fall off in the yield of eggs, and growing chickens 
do not make satisfactory gains. Sitting hens will leave their nests, and 
the lowering of resistance lays the fowls open to attack of disease. 
The birds become dull, refuse food and in many cases die in three or 
four days after being attacked by large numbers of these parasites. 

The Argas Miniatus is a carrier of the Spirocheta gallinarum, the 
cause of a blood disease, spirochetosis of fowls. This disease has 
been reported from Brazil, and from Africa. 

Treatment. — If the hen house is of little value, burning it will save 
time and trouble. If the house is of modern structure thoroughly 
clean the house burning all the litter and nesting material and thor- 
oughly spray with crude petroleum, or a strong kerosene emulsion, 
or full strength coal tar dip. This must be driven into the cracks of 
the building and equipment as nests, feed hoppers, and broody 
coops. Hot tar driven into the cracks eliminates them sealing in 
the parasites. One application may not rid the premises of the 
pests as they are very resistant and some of the eggs or even the 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 103 

parasites may be missed as the remedy must come in actual contact 
with the tick. Owing to the fact that the young ticks attach them- 
selves to the birds for a few days makes it necessary to continue the 
attack of the pests. Ordinary dusting powder as used for lice will 
not kill the parasite. Lard in which has been rubbed a small quan- 
tity of sulphur and this applied to the parts attacked by the young 
ticks will kill all that it comes in contact with. Metal buildings are 
not recommended as they are extremely hot in the hotter parts of 
the year. Thorough soaking with crude petroleum, creosote, and 
sealing cracks with hot tar is preferable. 

THE BEDBUG OF POULTRY 

The chicken bug or dove cote bug is known as the Acanthia 
Inodora. It is especially found in the warmer parts of the 
country around unclean roosts and filthy dove cotes. It is 
closely allied to the bed bug, the Cimex Lectularia, from which 
it requires a microscopic study to differentiate it. 

Acanthia Inodora 

Description. — The Acanthia inodora is provided with a large oval 
abdomen, narrow thorax bearing three pairs of legs, and a rather 
broad head bearing a pair of eyes, and a pair of antennae. The 
third and fourth segments of the antennae are much thinner than 
the first and second. The rostrum or anterior head parts are short. 
The body is covered with short hairs. The thorax is crescent 
shaped on the anterior border and is much wider than the head. 
The abdomen is segmented. 

Life History. — The female deposits 100 to 200 eggs in the cracks, 
and crevices of the perch poles, and building, and in the filth of the 
floor and dropping boards, where they soon hatch, if the weather is 
warm, and rapidly develop to adult size. The eggs are oval and 
pearly white. The young escapes from the egg by lifting the end 
cap or operculum. The hatching under favorable conditions occurs 
in one week, the nympha stage six weeks, and the entire time from 
the egg to the age of reproduction is from seven to eight weeks. 

Symptoms. — The poultry bedbug is quite a pest in warm 
countries as Southern United States, Mexico and Central 
America. The bugs hiding in the cracks and other darkened 
protected places in the daytime come out at night and make 
their attack in swarms, overrunning the legs and bodies of the 
fowls and suck their blood. After feeding the engorged bugs 
leave the fowls and seek a hiding place, where they remain 
for several days, during which time the meal is being digested. 
Finally they may be seen in enormous numbers swarming over 
the roosts and nests, specking the eggs with their excrement. 
The effect of the bites depends upon the susceptibility of the 
fowl attacked. In some, as with the ticks, it causes marked 
irritation with marked swelling, while little effect may result 
in other attacks. The biting organ, consisting of four pierc- 
ing filaments within the lips or labium, is closely applied to the 
point of puncture as the blood is drawn up. The effects upon 



104 POULTRY DISEASES 

the sitting hen, laying fowls and growing birds are similar 
to that of the chicken tick above described. 

Treatment. — Similar treatment as described for the chicken 
tick is advised. The attack against this bug, in comitries where 
it occurs, must be directed early in the year as it at times is 
a formidable foe, even invading dwelling houses and proving 







..>■ .."""fllllK ..»lNIIII"<l«i|| 

rl.„Hlll/lM^ll. 'Ul/«li;//;,J i> 

Fig. 39. Acanthia Inouora. 
The drawing at the upper right hand corner is actual size. 

more troublesome than the common bedbug, Cimex Lectu- 
larius. They begin to appear about the middle of April and 
after that time it may be necessary to keep the chickens entirely 
out of doors. 

The bugs may live for many months in the filth about a 
dove cote or henhouse and the disinfection must be thoroughly 
done to eradicate them. 

BEE STINGS 

Young chickens, and especially young ducklings, are prone 
to catching flies and other insects. Young ducklings have 
been known, where they were kept in a yard with bee gums 
sitting on the ground, to catch the bees that in hot weather 
settle on the outside of the gum. In many of such cases the 
ducklings were attacked by the infuriated bees and so severely 
stung that many died. Severe swellings follow the bee stings. 

FUNGI AFFECTING BIRDS 

The fungi constitute a complex group of organisms which 
include the molds, grain rusts, mildews and smut. They range 
in size from single microscopic cells to systems of entangled 
threads made up of series of cells. These entangled masses 
are called mycelia and are made up of threads and spores. 
The threads consisting of chains of cells are called hyphae and 
the spores are round or oval microscopic bodies from which 
the hyphae develop or which propagate the mold. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 105 

Many of these fungi, among- them some of the molds, do not 
cause disease, but hve on dead and decaying matter, both 
vegetable and animal. These are called saprophytes. Others 
may live in or upon the body and cause disease and these are 
called pathogenic fungi. 

Of the pathogenic fungi, four are harmful to chickens. The 
Oidiufyi Albicans causing sore mouth, the Tinea Favosa caus- 
ing honey-comb ringzvorm, the Aspergillus Glauciis causing a 
skin disease of pigeons, and the Aspergillus Fumigatus caus- 
ing a fungus pneumonia of fowls. 

Thrush — Aphtha — Sore Mouth 

This is a condition affecting the mouth and is due to a lov^- 
grade fungus called the Oidium Albicans, or Saccharomyces 
Albicans. The sore is covered by a mat-like structure or 
mycelium. This mycelium consists of hyphae or fine thread- 
Hke processes, which in some instances show well-marked 
chains of cells. It reproduces by forming oval spores. These 
spores are microscopic in size and are mixed with the hyphae 
in the mycelial mat. 

Symptoms. — The' symptoms are those of dullness, loss of 
appetite, emaciation, convulsions and death. The mucous lin- 
ing of the mouth and esophagus are affected by whitish or 
brownish yellow deposits adhering to the mucous surface. 
These are composed of the filaments or hyphae with oval 
spores. The disease not only affects fowls, but has been 
observed in other birds among which are the turkey. 

Treatment. — If the patches can be seen, it is best to cauter- 
ize the area with lunar caustic, or nitrate of silver. Pure 
iodine applied with a swab, made by twisting a small piece of 
cotton around the end of a stick, and dipping this in pure 
iodine, and then rubbing the sore, is also effective treatment. 
Care must be exercised so that some of the iodine does not 
run down onto other adjacent tissue. Intestinal antiseptics 
are also indicated such as are given in other intestinal dis- 
orders as fowl cholera. 

Tinea Favosa — Honey-Comb Ringworm 

This is a disease of the head and upper neck of fowls and 
is due to a low-grade fungus, the Achorion Sclwenlcinii. The 
fungus somewhat resembles the Oidium Albicans appearing as 
a mat or mycelium consisting of hyphae or threads, and repro- 
ducing by spore formation. 

The hyphae are three to five microns thick, forming ramify- 
ing branches with tapering ends. The hyphae are matted 
together, forming mycelia or mat-like masses. Spores vary- 



106 POULTRY DISEASES 

ing from three to six microns in diameter are found in the 
meshes of this myceha. These spores are eggs or seed, and 
are egg, ball or biscuit-shaped. 

Like the oidium albicans, the fungus may be grown on arti- 
ficial media. Upon artificial medium it appears as a moss-like 
growth. It grows best at twenty-five degrees C. 

Symptoms. — This disease has been called favus, baldness 
and ivhitc comb. It is a disease that is highly contagious and 
attacks the comb, face and upper portion of the neck. If not 
treated, but allowed to spread and go on uninterrupted, it may 
later involve the entire neck and extend to the body. 

The disease first appears on the comb or face as whitish 
or light gray, small, roundish patches, which vary from the 
size of a millet seed to a half-inch in diameter. Later these 
patches may coalesce and form large areas. 

The diseased area is covered with a scale which may be 
depressed in the center and turned up at the edges, giving each 
area a cup-shaped appearance. In the course of four to six 
weeks, the crusts may be one-fourth inch in thickness. 

The feathers become dry, erect, brittle and break off at 
the surface, leaving large denuded areas. A disagreeable odor 
is given off by the diseased areas which odor has been likened 
to that of moldy cheese. As the disease progresses the bird 
loses its appetite, becomes gradually emaciated, weakened and 
finally dies. 

Treatment. — In the early stage this disease yields to treat- 
ment readily. The crusts should be soaked with a soapy water 
containing four per cent solution of a disinfectant dip. The 
disinfectant dip used should have a coefficient of at least 
five. The premises should be thoroughly cleaned and disin- 
fected with a four per cent solution of the dip. Lard or vase- 
line in which a small amount of sulphur has been incorporated, 
and this thoroughly rubbed into the affected part once every 
third day, is also effective treatment. 

Pneumomycosis — Aspergillosis 

Pneumomycosis is a pneumonia of fowls due to a fungus 
the Aspergillus Fumigatus. This fungus is somewhat similar 
to the green mold. It affects the lungs and will be discussed 
under, "Diseases of the Respiratory Organs." 

MYCOSIS OF PIGEONS 

Mycosis of pigeons is a disease of the skin of pigeons due 
to a fungus, the Aspergillus Glaucus. The fungus attacks the 
skin of the pigeon causing yellowish crusts or scabs. These 
patches may be located on any part of the body of the bird. 



I 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 107 

The scabby patches give off an offensive odor. The birds 
suffer a loss of appetite, gradual emaciation, unkempt appear- 
ance of the plumage and may finally die of exhaustion. 

Treatment. — The same treatment as indicated under honey- 
comb ringworm is recommended. 

BLASTOMYCOSIS OF THE GOOSE 

Blastomycosis is a disease caused by the blastoniyeetes, a 
yeast-like organism. The disease has been recorded as occur- 
ring among geese. The symptoms are those of a chronic dis- 
ease among which may be mentioned weakness, partial loss 
of appetite, emaciation and death. 

Postmortem Findings. — At autopsy, there is found small 
cysts attached to the capsule of the liver or other structures. 
The cysts vary in size up to a pea. They are seldom, if ever, 
found in the liver substance. The cysts are yellowish-white in 
color, fluctuate and resemble somewhat the small tape worm 
cysts. Upon microscopic examination yeast-like bodies are 
observed which somewhat resemble the Oidium Albicans. 
Some may be found in the process of budding. The liquid 
of the cyst is of a yellowish color and of a gelatinous con- 
sistency. The cells are provided with a capsule and contain 
a homogeneous protoplasm in the center of which is observed 
a nucleus. 

WHITE SCALE OF THE COMB, FACE, AND WATTLES 

This is a condition among fowls which affects the comb, 
face and wattles. The disease manifests itself as very thin, 
white scales, covering large areas of the comb, face and wat- 
tles and in some respects simulates white comb, due to a fun- 
gus, but in these cases laboratory examinations have failed 
to reveal a fungus and inoculations of other birds from the 
scales fail to reproduce the disease. It never attacks the 
feathered parts of the head or neck. The disease may attack 
many members of a flock and suddenly, after a few weeks or 
at most, months, spontaneously disappear. 

Treatment. — The best results have been attained by apply- 
ing a sulphur ointment made by rubbing in five parts of sul- 
phur in 100 parts vaseline or lard. 

BALDNESS OF FOWLS AND CANARIES 

Baldness of fowls and canaries is a loss of feathers of the 
top or crest of the head. Baldness may sometimes be due to 
lice or mites. A loss of feathers about the head, especially 
in canaries, may also indicate old age or even general debility. 



108 POULTRY DISEASES 

Look carefully with a hand lens for mites. One fowl may 
sometimes eat the feathers from the head of its mate. 

Treatment. — At the natural time of moulting, the growth 
of feathers may be aided by warmth and a well-regulated diet. 
In addition to the usual feed, twice a week give to the canary 
a little bread moistened with milk which has been dusted with 
a mixture of two parts sulphur and one part potassium chlor- 
ate. At the same intervals rub a little carbolized vaseline on 
the bald spot. 



CHAPTER IV 

INTERNAL PARASITES 

Internal parasites are those parasites that Hve within the 
body of the bird. They may infest the intestinal tract, liver, 
trachea, lungs and air sacs, or the subcutaneous structures. 

Parasites infesting the intestinal tract of fowls are very 
common and serious results are often met with where large 
numbers occur. These parasites are commonly spoken of as 
worms. Other internal parasites, such as gape worm and the 
air sac mite, while not so common as the intestinal worms, are 
by no means unknown and have the same possibilities of seri- 
ous infestations. 

Intestinal parasites in small numbers infest the majority of 
fowls without doing perceptible harm, but there is always 
the possibility that conditions for their propagation may be- 
come so favorable as to turn the mildest infestation into a 
devastating parasitism. Indeed, this very thing has occurred 
numberless times and not a few flocks have been entirely 
destroyed by it. The death of any bird from the effects 
of internal parasites should be looked upon with apprehension. 

Flocks infested with large numbers of round worms are 
unprofitable in the extreme. The birds are unthrifty, appear 
unkempt and suffer from diarrhea and constipation. Young 
fowls are most severely affected. 

Internal parasites may be classed under four orders, as 
follows : Nematoda, or round worms ; Cestoda, or ribbon- 
shaped segmented worms; Acanthocephala, or thorn-headed 
worms ; Trematoda, or flat leaf -like worms, called flukes. 

IMPORTANT ROUND WORMS 

Round worms are the most common of the internal para- 
sites. The small round cecal worm may be found in the ceca 
of more than^ eighty per cent of the fowls, and these worms 
are known to transmit the blackhead protozoa. Usually in other 
portions of the bowel and especially the small intestine may 
be found the large round worm. ,When numerous, these 
worms may seriously interfere with digestion and nutrition, 
and by their irritation of the intestine cause a stubborn diar- 
rhea. Rarely they become so plentiful in the intestine as to 
wholly obstruct it. If in large numbers they may cause a 
loss of weight, stunted growth of range chickens, and in lay- 
ing hens a loss in egg production. 



110 



POULTRY DISEASES 



The round worms include four important internal parasites 
of birds; the large, round, intestinal worm, the Ascaris inflexa; 
the small, round intestinal worm, the Hetcrakis papulosa; the 
gizzard worm, the Spiropfcra hamiilosa, and the gape worm, 
the Syngamus trachealis, besides a number of rare, or for other 
reasons, unimportant w^orms, all of which will be described in 
turn. 

THE ASCARIS INFLEXA 

(The large, round worms of fowls.) 
This parasite, sometimes called the Heterakis pcrspicillum, 
is commonly known as the large round intestinal worm. It 
is very common, having been observed in twenty-four out of 
eighty-seven autopsies. 

Description. — This intestinal parasite is round in shape and whitish- 
yellow to white in color, varying from one to two inches in length. 
There are two sexes, male and female, the female being consider- 
ably the larger. Fig. 40 shows a drawing, actual size of the young 
male and female. Some few specimens and especially the adult are 
much larger than the ones shown. 




Fig. 40. Fig. 41. Fig. 42 

Fig. 40. Ascaris Inflexa (natural size). 

a, female; b, male. 

Fig. 41. Heterakis Papillosa (natural size). 

a, female; b, male. 

Fig. 42. Heterakis Papillosa, Head Extremity (Magnified). 

a, mouth parts; b, esophagus. 



I 



Life History. — The adult worms deposit large numbers of eggs 
in the intestines of the infested fowls. The eggs pass out with the 
droppings and ordinarily do not hatch till they are taken into the 
alimentary tract of a fowl. These eggs are very minute, microscopic 
in size, and can be seen only under a high power microscope. In 
the droppings they are very resistant to drying and may remain 
alive for at least a year. There is some evidence, however, that the 
eggs may hatch under certain conditions in the droppings. Birds 
become infested by drinking water, or eating feed, that is con- 
taminated with egg-laden droppings. Thus the introduction into 
a flock of one infested bird may result in the infestation of an entire 
flock. The younger worms are found in the small intestine par- 
ticularly in the duodenal loop or gizzard end and the larger worms 



INTERNAL PARASITES 111 

farther down the small intestine. The development from newly 
hatched larvae to full grown males and females is attained in three 
to four weeks. If infestation has lasted the required length of time 
the droppings of an infested fowl will be seen to harbor great 
numbers of tiny worm eggs. 

Symptoms. — These parasites harm the fowl by ingesting 
food (luring its digestion by the host, thus robbing the bird 
of food nutrients. A few worms may produce no notice- 
able ill efifect upon the health of the bird, but if present in large 
numbers, they may cause serious trouble. It has been observed 
that the excrementitious, or waste matter, given ofif by these 
and other intestinal worms is poisonous. It is absorbed by the 
bird and has a deleterious constitutional effect, similar to that 
of like infestations by parasites in the larger animals and in 
man. 

At times the worms are found in large masses, partially 
obstructing the bowel, causing constipation and possibly irri- 
tation and diarrhea result, or, the irritation may be sufficient 
to cause inflammation. There may be a loss of appetite, 
unthrifty condition, unkempt appearance of plumage, dullness, 
languor with droopy wings, emaciation, loss of color from the 
comb, face and wattles and mucous membranes, followed in a 
few weeks by death. Large numbers of these worms in laying 
hens cause a falling off in tgg production, and stunted growth 
in developing chickens. 

By careful examination of the contents of the digestive tract 
of the birds killed for food purposes, the poultry raiser may 
keep informed as to whether these parasites are present in 
his flock. If these worms are present in members of the flock 
close observation will occasionally discover them passed in 
the droppings. 

Treatment. — It is necessary to thoroughly clean the hen- 
house and yard and burn all litter. Scatter with a sprinkling 
can, a salt brine solution over the entire yard, floor and drop- 
ping boards. A saturated salt solution coming in contact with 
the worms and eggs will kill them. The water for the birds 
should be kept in clean fountains and the food in mash hop- 
pers. These utensils should be so arranged that the birds 
cannot step into them. The water container should be fre- 
quently disinfected with a four per cent solution of a coal tar 
dip. If at all possible, birds should be moved upon new 
ground. The parasites' eggs in the droppings removed from 
the henhouse may be destroyed by mixing the manure with 
unslaked lime. Or, in case it is the desire to save the ferti- 
lizer value, the droppings may be hauled far out in the 
field out of reach of the fowls. 



112 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Finely cho])ped tobacco leaves or stems may be steeped in 
hot water and ^nven in the mash. One-half pound finely 
chopped tobacco is one dose for fifty adult birds. Fast the 
birds over night and give, on an empty crop, in the morning. 
Follow this with four ounces epsom salts to each fifty birds, 
giving the salts dissolved in water, and the water mixed with 
mash. The salts should be given as a physic, two hours after 
giving the tobacco. In two more hours, the birds may be put 
back on regular feed. 

Another treatment consists of giving each bird one tea- 
spoonful of turpentine followed by a tablespoonful of olive 
oil. Care must be taken lest the liquid finds its way into the 
trachea and a mechanical pneumonia result. If the crop is 
full it will require larger doses. It is best to give all medicine 
to fowls on an empty crop. 

Five to ten grain doses of areca nut, per bird, is also effec- 
tive treatment. The areca nut can be mixed with soft feed 
and given in clean troughs. This drug acts as both a para- 
siticide and a cathartic. One grain doses of thymol, also two 
grain doses of santonin, per bird, have also been recommended. 

HETERAKIS PAPILLOSA 

(The small round worm of fowls.) 

The Heterakis papillosa, or small round intestinal worm, 

is quite common and is found in the blind gut, or caeca. It 

has been found present in about fifty per cent of the adult 

birds autopsied. 

Description. — This worm is much smaller than the Ascaris Inflexa, 
being only about one-fourth to one-half inch long. It is white in 
color. Fig. 41 shows a drawing, natural size, of the male and 




Fig. 43. Heterakis Papillosa, Tail Extremity (greatly magnified). 
a, spiculae; b, preanal sucker; c, papillae. 



female. Fig. 42 shows a drawing of the head parts, magnified sev- 
eral times, and Fig. 43 the tail, or caudal, extremity of the male, 
magnified several times. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 113 

Life History.—So far as is known the life history of the Heterakis 
papillosa is the same as the Ascaris Tnflexa described above. The 
eggs are elliptical in shape and measure 74 to 78 micra long by 41 
micra broad. The shell is thick, measuring 3.5 micra. The embryo 
under favorable conditions will develop in seven days. The egg, 
containing the embryo, taken into the digestive tract, will hardi 
and, in the caecum, reach the mature state in 57 days. The entire 
cycle is 64 days. The embryos measure from 250 to 340 micra 
long and 14 to 15.6 micra thick. The embryo develop slowly, in 
the egg, at 13 °C. About 30 °C appears to be the optimum tem- 
perature for development, the embryo reaching its final stage in 7 
to 12 days. Freezing does not kill the ova or embryos. Fully de- 
veloped eggs resist drying for 18 days. Embryos in physiological 
salt solutions, at room temperature, were alive at the end of 12 
months. Fully developed ova kept in soil outdoors under circum- 
stances siiiiulating natural cpnditions Qontained living embryos after 
a period of eight months. The ova hatch in the small "Tiite'stine, 
pass into the large intestine, to the ceca where they develop to adult 
stage. 

Symptoms. — When present in large numbers this worm may 
cause considerable irritation and results in digestive disturb- 
ances, diarrhea, inflammation, unthrifty condition, falling ofif 
in Ggg production, interference with growth in developing 
birds, emaciation and possibly death. The worms are found 
lying on the mucous membrane and to the outside of the fecal 
mass of the blind gut. As with the ascaris, they rob the fowl 
of nourishment. 

Treatment. — The Heterakis papillosa or caecal worm-in- 
fested bowel can best be treated by forcing the medicine 
through a syringe into the cloaca and rectum. In the normal 
function of the bowels, the caeca are filled from the large intes- 
tines through reversed peristalsis, the caecal valves acting as 
flood gates, forcing the liquid to go into the caeca, 

. Sanitary measures for the prevention and eradication of this 
parasite and directions for its treatment are the same as for 
the Asearis Inflexa. Powdered areca nut, powdered pome- 
granate root bark, turpentine, gasoline, iron sulphate and to- 
bacco, given alone or in various combinations in the form of 
pills or mixed with food and on an empty crop are efifective. 

Tobacco stems when finely chopped, steeped in water for 
two hours and the stems and liquid mixed with the mash are 
readily eaten by the fowls and give uniformly good results. 
The fowls which are very badly infested with round worms 
are in most instances entirely freed from these parasites after 
two doses. 



114 POULTRY DISEASES 



SPIROPTERA HAMULOSA 

(The gizzard worm) 

This is the gizzard worm of the fowl. Specimens have been 
secured from outbreaks in the middle west. 

Description. — The male measures about one-half inch in length 
and the female about three-fourths of an inch. Fig. 44 shows a 
drawing natural size, of this worm. 



1 




Fig. 44. Spiroptera Hamulosa (natural size). 
a, male; b, female. 

Symptoms. — The economic importance of this worm is due 
chiefly to the loss of weight, the stunted growth of range 
chickens, and in laying hens a loss in egg production. 

The infested bird becomes anemic, loss of flesh and finally 
emaciation, extremely lazy, and has a ravenous appetite. The 
worms are imbedded in the mucous lining of the gizzard where 
they may cause nodules or tumor-like formations. The fowls 
become infested by eating feed or water which have become 
soiled with the droppings of infested birds. One infested 
bird introduced into the flock may result in infestation of the 
entire flock. 

Treatment. — Effective treatment is difficult, owing to the 
fact that the worms are imbedded in tumefactions in the walls 
of the gizzard. 

Give turpentine and olive oil as directed for the treatment 
of the Ascaris Inflexa as outlined above. The treatment 
should be repeated three or four times at intervals of one 
week. 

Eradieatlon of Worms. — A campaign to control the round 
worms of all kinds infesting the intestinal tract involves both 
treatment of the fowls in order to expell the worms and dis- 
infection and sanitation of the coops, houses and yards, to 
destroy the expelled worms and worm eggs and larvae to 
prevent a reinfestation of the birds. 

Some birds do not like mash in which there is incorporated 
turpentine, or areca nut. Tobacco stems finely chopped and 
steeped in hot water for two hours and this mixed with mash, 
gives uniformly good results and is readily eaten by the fowls. 
Badly infested birds expel large numbers of worms and are 
entirely freed from the infestation. Two doses should be 



INTERNAL PARASITES 115 

given three days apart. For each fifty fowls, one-half pound 
finely chopped tobacco stems should be used. The birds 
should be fed this mixture in the morning, on an empty 
crop. In two hours, give to each fifty fowls, four ounces 
of epsom salts dissolved in water and this water mixed with 
mash. Do not give any other feed till the physic has acted. 
For chicks, give doses in proportion to the size of the bird. 
This treatment will cost about one cent for each ten birds. 

After the treatment the birds should be moved to yards and 
houses free from worm infestation. In yards where in- 
fested fowls have been kept, it has been observed, upon micro- 
scopic examination, that loose soil may be infested by the 
eggs of the round intestinal worms to a depth of two inches 
below the surface. For disinfecting the yards, a corrosive sub- 
limate solution 1 to 1,000 may be used. This applied by aid 
of a sprinkling can after all rubbish has been swept up and 
removed. One gallon of the solution should be used for each 
ten square feet. Another effective treatment is to use the 
same quantity of a strong salt brine. This solution is very 
destructive to the worms, their eggs and larvae, but care must 
be exercised to not allow this solution to accumulate in small 
pools as fowls are easily poisoned with salt. Young birds are 
poisoned by a one and one-half per cent solution of salt. 

The houses should be thoroughly cleaned and every square 
inch saturated with the corrosive sublimate or salt brine solu- 
tion. The litter should be removed from the yard and house 
and hauled out and scattered on a field used for raising crops 
and out of reach of the range of the fowls, or the litter may 
be burned. 

Corrosive sublimate, or mercuric chloride is poisonous and 
care must be taken not to allow the birds to drink it or the 
feed and water to become contaminated with it. After the 
feed and water troughs have been thoroughly scrubbed inside 
and out with the solution, they must be carefully rinsed with 
clean water. 

SYNGAMUS TRACHEALIS 

(The gape worm) 

Gapes in young chickens is due to the gape worm of the 

trachea. This worm is sometimes called the Sclcrostoma Syn- 

gamus, and popularly the forked worm or gapeworm. There 

is another variety of this worm slightly larger than this one 

that infests the bronchi and trachea of water fowls, as ducks, 

geese and swans. It is called the Syngamus Bronchialis. 

Description. — The male is very much smaller than the female upon 
which it is usually firmly and permanently attached by its caudal or 



116 POULTRY DISEASES 

tail clasping apparatus. Thus giving to the united form the appear- 
ance of a single worm with a forked appearance which in reality is 
two worms, a male and a female, as shown in Fig. 45. 




Fig. 45. Syngamus Trachealis (natural size). 
a, mucous membrane of the trachea; b, male; c, female. 

A, illustrates a section of the esophagus to which is attached a male 
and a female in permanent copulation. B, is the male, and C, is 
the female. Note how tiny, both in length and thickness, the male 
is as compared to the female. The male is only about one-fourth 
inch long. The female is about one inch long and is quite thick 
as compared to the male. The mouth parts are surrounded by a 
capsular structure by which it holds firmly to the mucous mem- 
brane of the trachea, or "windpipe," or to the mucous Hning of the 
larger bronchi. The mouth parts are provided with chittinous teeth, 
with which it wounds the mucous membrane; from this wound it 
sucks blood. 

Life History. — The adult female worms are expelled by the in- 
fested chick by its coughing. The female produces eggs_ which 
escape from her body only after she is expelled from the chick and 
her body disintegrated. The eggs or embryos (young worms) thus 
escaping from the decomposing and disintegrating female may le 
taken up by other chicks through soiled feed or water containing 
them. Or if the chick should pick up an expelled female containing 
mature eggs, the embryos would be liberated in the stomach of the 
chick, in which case they migrate to the air passages as the bronchi 
and trachea and develop to adult size to again reproduce. At this 
stage the young worms are microscopic in size. It is not thought 
that an intermediate host is necessary though it has been shown 
that the feeding of earth worms may cause the disease among 
chicks otherwise protected against infestation. The earth worm is 
thought to contain the young embryo gape worm in its intestinal 
tract taking it up with its food from the ground without playing the 
role of an intermediate host. The young worms may live for a 
considerable time in water, and wet soil. Damp soil thus favors 
its spread. Ground contaminated by gapeworms is likely to remain 
infective for at least a year after further infection of the soil has 
ceased. 

In examinations made of 635 market chickens, during the winter 
months, none of which were fowls less than 6 months old, no 
infestation with syngamus trachealis was detected. Traceas of 
679 turkeys from the same market, all of which birds were at least 
6 months old, gave an infestation of 22.5 per cent. In artificial 
infestation experiments in which gape worm eggs containing fully 
developed larvae were fed to incubator chicks there resulted an 



INTERNAL PARASITES 117 

infestation of 87 per cent in chicks up to the age of 4 weeks, 84 per 
cent from 5 to 8 weeks of age, 66 per cent from 9 to 20 weeks of 
age, and 29 per cent from 21 weeks of age to adult. It is possible 
that the turkey is therefore the natural host of the gapeworm and 
that both old and .younger turkeys may harbor these worms with- 
out showing any symptoms. Gapes appears more prevalent on 
farms where turkeys are kept. 

Symptoms. — Wild, as well as domesticated birds may 
develop gapes, due to this worm, as it has been observed in 
chickens, turkeys, pheasants, partridges, ])ea fowls, magpies, 
black stork, starlings, crows, parrots, swifts, woodpeckers 
and martins. 

The poultryman's trouble with this worm is usually with 
young chicks and young turkeys as it does not usually pro- 
duce harmful effects in adult birds. The small immature 
gapeworms or eggs containing the'tiny worms find their way 
to the intestinal tract of the young birds as described above, 
and from the intestines the embryos migrate to the trachea 
and its branches or bronchi and attach themselves, usually in 
clusters, where owing to their small size they do not cause 
serious trouble at that time, but as they grow in size they 
gradually obstruct the air passages to the lungs and as a 
result the bird, day by day, finds breathing luore and more 
difficult and after a while gasps for air, finally becoming 
asphyxiated. The presence of the worms in a bird is indi- 
cated by the peculiar wheezing cough, gasping and the expul- 
sion of frothy saliva from the mouth. The bird appears dull 
with rufffed feathers, loss of appetite, rapid emaciation, gap- 
ing, opening the mouth and extending the head high in the 
air, and death. Usually a lump may be found by feeling 
along the trachea, if the worms be lodged in that part of the 
trachea which is palpable. The sick bird coughs and shakes 
its head frequently. The bird frecjuently opens its mouth, 
making a wheezing sound and extends its head far up into 
the air. A definite diagnosis may always be made upon 
autopsy by the presence of the worms in the trachea, where, 
if present, they will be found in pairs attached to the mucous 
membrane. 

Prevention. — Hatch the eggs in an incubator. Do not allow 
chicks to run out in wet grass, where they may find earth 
worms or contaminated water or on ground that has been 
exposed to chicks with gapes within at least a year. Feed 
only from containers which are constructed for the purpose 
and kept clean. Burn all extracted gape worms and the 
bodies of chicks dead of the disease. The allowing of chicks 
dead of gapes to lie around or the burying of them or throw- 
ing on the ground of the extracted worms, is a fruitful 



118 POULTRY DISEASES 



^ 



source of the perpetuation of this disease. If turkeys are 
kept on the premises, exclude them from the chick range, 
since they are possible carriers. 

Treatment. — By grasping the bird in the left hand and 
forcing the ir.outh open, a doubled horse-hair may be run 
down the trachea, and, by twisting and again withdrawing, 
the worms are usually dislodged. Gentle pressure over the 
region of the mass may so injure the w^orms as to cause them 
to loosen their hold and be expelled by the bird during the 
coughing which this causes. Care must be exercised lest 
the trachea be injured. A feather from which all the barbes 
except those on the extreme tip have been removed may be 
dipped in turpentine, or oil of cloves, thinned to twice their 
volume with olive oil, forced down the trachea, and when 
the tip passes the mass of worms it may be twisted as it is 
withdrawn. This usually results in the removal of the worms. 
By referring to Fig. 2, the location of the opening of the tra- 
chea, 34, through the superior larynx may be seen. The 
syngamus bronchialis affects the bronchi of water fowl where 
it causes a catarrhal condition and at times abscess formation. 

UNIMPORTANT ROUND WORMS OF FOWLS 

There are other round worms that may infest the intestinal 
tract, but they are not common, or important, to the poultry 
raiser. The list follows : 

Heterakis Differens 

This is a slightly larger worm than the Heterakis Papillosa to 
which it is closely allied. Its mouth has no apparent lips; the 
pharyngeal bulb is distinct; there are two unequal spiculae. It is 
found in the posterior portion of the intestine of the fowl. 

Heterakis Compressa 

This is a round worm of about the size of the large round worm 
or Ascaris Inflexa. The tail ends in a sharp mucro. It is found in 
the small intestine of the fowl. 

Trichosom.um 

Several species of the whip worm, or the genus trichosomum 
have been reported from various parts of the world, but have not 
been observed in the United States. They are shaped something 
like the old-fashioned blacksnake whip. They are blood suckers, 
and in the adult stage live in the small intestine. 

Heterakis Maculosa 

This is a round worm, white in color, and is found in intestinal 
vesicles of the pigeon. The male is about three-fourths of an inch 
in length and the female about one inch. At times this worm is a 
serious menace to the flock, killing many birds. The symptoms 
are similar to those produced in fowls by the round worms. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 119 

Dispharagus Nasutus 

(Filaria Tite, Dispharagus Spiralis, Dispharagus Laticeps) 

These round worms infest the crop and stomach of the fowl and 

when in large numbers may be of serious consequence. They are 

slender and thread-like and sometimes cause catarrh, and if in very 

large numbers the bird becomes emaciated and dies. 

Trichosonia Contortum 

This worm infests the crop of water fowls as ducks and geese. 
When in large numbers it causes catarrh, dilitation of the crop, and 
emaciation. The bird appears dull and may show nervous symp- 
toms, even epileptiform symptoms. Aggrevated symptoms appear 
in about ten days after severe infestation. Obstruction of the crop 
often follows. A positive diagnosis may be made by irrigating the 
crop and washing out the small thread-like worms. Both macro- 
scopic and microscopic examinations should be made of the material 
washed from the crop. The macroscopic examination to see if worms 
are present and the micropscopic examination to see if the worm eggs 
are present. 

Trcaimcnt. — In this disease treatment has been rather unsatis- 
factory. Keep well birds away from infected water. Give each 
bird one grain thymol and one teaspoonful epsom salts. The 
tobacco treatment may also be tried. 

TAPEWORMS 
Flat Segmented Worms 

Tapew^orms are flat segmented worms resembling a seg- 
mented tape line, and inhabit the intestinal tract of all species 
of birds, as well as of animals and man. More than thirty 
different kinds of tapeworms have been reported for poultry. 

Tapeworms differ from the round worms just described, 
in that they have no mouth or digestive tract, are flat and 
segmented and have no distinct sex ; that is, the male and 
the female are combined in each segment, in a single individual, 
constituting a hermaphrodite. The tapeworms all live in the 
intestinal tract, in their adult stage and absorb, through their 
body, nutrients taken in by the bird and digested ; thus they 
rob the bird of food nutrients. The entire worm is divided 
into a head, neck and body. The head is provided with four 
suckers and in some species one or more circular rows of 
booklets. This constitutes its fixation apparatus by which it 
attaches itself to the mucous membrane lining the intestinal 
tract and floats in its contents. In some species, the neck is 
long, in others short, but always unsegmented. The body is 
composed of segments. These segments grow from the neck. 
At first the segments are short and narrow, but become longer 
and wider as the distance from the head increases. At vary- 
ing distances from the head the segments become mature, 
that is, fully developed sexually and ready to propagate. 
Each segment is really a separate animal and possesses both 



120 POULTRY DISEASES 

male and female generative apparatus, that is, a hermaphro- 
dite. Each segment impregnates itself, after which the eggs 
are developed. As soon as the segment is filled with fully 
developed or mature eggs, the segment detaches itself, passes 
out with the dropping and falls to the ground. Thus at times, 
we may find on the droppings of an infested bird the segments, 
white in color and possessing the power of movement ; that is, 
they may contract and expand, showing them to be live matter. 
This is especially noticeable if the segments are placed in 
water. Before it is detached, each segment absorbs its own 
food nutrients through its integument or body. This nutrient 
consists of the food eaten and digested by the fowl. New 
segments are constantly being developed by the neck of the 
J^apeworm, growing down, becoming mature, then ripe, that 
is, filled with filature' eggs and detached. If not- interfered 
with, this process goes on almost indefinitely. 

Upon disintegration of the segment shed from the worm, 
and passed out wath the droppings, the eggs become scattered. 
The life history of many worms from this point is not well 
understood. It probably has an intermediate host, by which 
the egg is taken up and within which the embryo passes 
through a cystic stage in which is formed a larva, consist- 
ing of a head with its suckers and small hooks and a neck. 
When this cyst reaches the intestine of the bird, it is digested 
and the larva liberated and the larva becomes attached to the 
mucous lining of the intestine and develops to the adult stage 
just described. This is the case of most of the different kinds 
of tapeworms listed below as infesting fowls and turkeys, as 
well as water fowls, as ducks and geese. In some of these 
the common fly acts as the intermediate host, in others the 
slug and common snail, and in some of the varieties of the 
water fowls, fresh water crustaceans and molluscs. The 
eggs are taken up by these intermediate hosts through their 
food soiled with droppings of the infested fowl and these 
eggs hatch in the digestive tract of the intermediate host, and 
penetrate into its tissues where it develops into the larval or 
cystic stage, above described, in which condition it is capable 
of reinfesting another fowl. Fowls eating such insects or 
molluscs containing larval tapeworms become infested. 

The larva consists of a head with its fixation apparatus, 
namely, the suckers and booklets, if such be present in the 
adult stage, and a neck. By means of this fixation apparatus, 
it attaches itself to the mucous membrane or lining of the 
intestine of the fowl. It now absorbs digested food from the 
intestine of the fowl and begins to develop segments from the 



I 



INTERNAL PARASITES 



121 



free portion of its neck. In a few weeks the worm has 
attained its adult length consisting of a series of segments, 
which from the head posteriorward, hecome wider and longer 
as the distance from the head grows greater. Finally, ripe 
segments filled with fully matured eggs hegin to be cast off 
at intervals. Under proper conditions, each segment contains 
several hundred eggs, and each tgg is capable of developing 
into a single tapeworm. A single tapeworm may live through- 
out the life of the fowl. 



Name 
Davainea proglottina 
Davainea tetragona 
Taenia infundibuliformis 
Dicranotaenia sphenoides 
Echinocotylus rosseteri 



Dicranotaenia coronula 
Drepanidotaenia gracilis 

Drepanidotaenia tenuirostris 
Davainea echinobothrida 
Davainea cesticillus 
Hymenolepis carioca 
Davainea echinobothrida 
Davainea cesticillus 



Tapeworms of Domestic Fowls 

Intermediate host for the 

Host cystic stage. 

Fowl Slug (Limax cinereus) 

Fowl Snail (Helix) 

Fowl Fly (Musca domestica) 

Fowl Fly (Musca domestica) 

Fowl Earth worm (Lumbricales) 

Duck Fresh water crustacean 

( cypriscinerers ) 

Duck Crustacean (Cypris cinerea) 

Duck Crustacean (Cypris cinerea) 

Duck Crustacean (Cypris viriens) 

Duck Crustacean (Cyclops agilis) 

Fowl Not known 

Fowl Not known 

Fowl Fly ( Stomoxys stabulaus) 

Turkey Not known 

Fowl Fly (Musca domestica) 



The Taenia Infundibuliformis 

The taenia infundibuliformis, also called the Choanota In- 
fundibulifonuis, and also the Drepanidotaenia rnfnndilmli- 
f or mis, is a common tapeworm infesting the small intestines 
of fowls. 

Description. — The Taenia Infundibuliformis varies in length from 
one and one-half to three inches. Fig. 46 illustrates a mature 
worm. Its head is oval, the neck short, and the segments shorter 
in length than in width. The head is provided with four sucker- 




FiG. 46. Taenia Infundibuliformis 
(natural size). 

a, head; b, segmented body. 



122 POULTRY DISEASES 



discs and a crown of from sixteen to twenty booklets (tiny hooks), 
which cannot be seen except by aid of a microscope. The anterior 
border of the segments is a trifle shorter than the posterior border, 
giving the edge of the worm a serrated appearance. The male and 
female genital pores irregularly alternate. 

Life History. — The eggs, from the disintegrating segments shed 
from the worm, pass out with the droppings and flies feasting upon 
the fresh feces devour, with their food sucked up, the tiny micro- 
scopic eggs, of the tapeworm, in which they hatch out into single 
celled embryos. These embryos penetrate the abdominal cavity of 
the fly and become encysted. Each cyst contains the larva of the 
tapeworm or Taenia Infundibuliformis and a fowl devouring the 
fly containing the cystic young tapeworm becomes infested. In 
the stomach of the fowl the cyst is digested liberating the live larva 
which now attaches itself to the lining of the small intestine and 
soon develops into an adult worm consisting of a head, a neck, and 
a long chain of segments. 

Symptoms. — If a bird be infested by large numbers of tape- 
worms, it is robbed of much food, as related above, and the 
fowl becomes unthrifty, shows an unkempt appearance of 
the feathers and possibly a loss of flesh. As a result of the 
irritation produced by these worms, there is a loss of appetite, 
derangement of digestion, catarrhal condition of the bowels 
and in laying hens a loss in ^gg production, and in growing 
birds, a stunted growth. Birds two to three months old may 
harbor many adult tapeworms. This tapew^orm often causes 
death of the infested bird. In the later stages of infestation, 
the bird appears dull, emaciated, and there may be a complete 
loss of appetite. 

This, one of the most common tapeworms, has been ob- 
served to be transmitted by the house fly, musca domestica. 
Young birds are more active in catching flies than older ones 
and are often more greatly infested. The degree of harm- 
fulness depends upon the number of tapeworms infesting 
the bird. Fowls with slight infestations may not show any 
symptoms. They may devour large quantities of feed and 
appear ravenously hungry. The irritation caused by these 
worms may cause diarrhea and the feed rushed through the 
intestinal tract before digestion and absorption of its nutrients 
can be properly accomplished. Though birds eat ravenously 
at first, their intestines are practically empty. The tapeworms 
rob the birds by absorbing digested nutrients. In the earlier 
stages, the bird appears restless. Heavily infested growing 
birds show a lack of proper development ; they are usually 
slender, poor in flesh, the head thin and the face, comb and 
wattles pale. 

Treatment. — Give to each fowl one teaspoonful of epsom 
salts dissolved in warm water, by the mouth or mix in bran, 
making the mash wet; follow with one-half teaspoonful of 



1 



INTERNAL PARASITES 



123 



turpentine. A few teaspoonfuls of a decoction of pumpkin 
seeds usually rid fowls of tapeworms. This should be fol- 
lowed by a teaspoonful of epsom salts or of olive oil. Pow- 
dered areca nut in three-grain doses given in dough ball by 
the mouth or in wet mash is also effective. Thymol in one- 
grain doses is said to rid the digestive tract of worms. 

Mix one tablespoonful of concentrated lye with four quarts 
of grain, as wheat, oats and corn and feed to the infested 
flock. It is better to fast the birds for twelve to eighteen 
hours. Give water as soon as the grain has been given as it 
aids in diluting the lye. Repeat the dose in twenty-four and 
again in forty-eight hours. The lye acts to some extent as 
a purgative. 

Davainea Tetragona 

The Davainea Tetragona is the tapeworm that causes nodular 
taeniasis or nodular tapezvorm disease. This disease has been 
observed and reported as occurring in some of the eastern 
states and causing quite a loss to poultry raisers. 




Fig. 47. Nodular Taeniasis or Tapeworm 
Disease. 

a, section through the intestine of fowl, 
natural size; b, nodules; natural size. 



In Fig. 47 may be seen a drawing, natural size, of an intes- 
tine showing this disease. This is a drawing of the outer or 
serous surface of the intestine, which presents a nodular 
appearance that might be mistaken for tuberculosis. Note 
that the nodule pushes the serous covering out. The mucous 
or inner lining of the intestine is similarly elevated and pro- 
truding from the nodules into the intestine may be seen a por- 
tion of some of the worms. In later stages, these nodules 
may show ulceration on the mucous surface. There may be 
seen in these nodules a greenish-yellow necrotic or dead tissue. 
A secondary invasion, with pus germs, may take place, in 
which case, pus will be present. Before the nodules are 



124 POULTRY DISEASES 

formed, these worms may be seen, under the microscope, 
to be lodged between the villi or miniature teat-like projec- 
tions from the inner lining of the intestine. 

Life History. — The intermediate host is the snail which becomes 
infested by eating the eggs of the tapeworm with its food that has 
been contaminated from the droppings of an infested fowl. In the 
tissue of the body of the snail the cystic or larval stage develops 
and the fowl becomes infested by eating the snail containing this 
young larval tapeworm. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms have been observed to be sim- 
ilar to those described as occurring in infestation by the 
Taenia Infundibuliformis described above: 

Treatment. — The treatment should be the same as for in- 
festation by the Taenia Infundibuliformis, or, mix with the 
feed one teaspoonful of powdered pomegranate root bark for 
every fifty adult birds. Follow^ with a physic. The physic 
may consist of four ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in water 
and mixed with mash or given as a drink. . 

Davainea Echinobothrida 

The Davainea Echinobothrida is one of the common tape- 
worms that infests the small intestines of turkeys. Its head 
is slightly larger than its neck, is rounded in front and is pro- 
vided with four suckers and a circular rostellum of booklets. 
These miniature hooks are arranged in a double row. The 
hooks number about 200 and surround a pit-like cavity. This 
constitutes the fixation apparatus by which means it holds on 
to the mucous lining of the bowel. These worms may reach 
the length of six inches. The mode of spread of this worm 
and the symptoms and treatment are the same as in the fowl. 

Other Tapeworms 

Many other species of tapeworms infest fowls, turkeys, 
ducks and geese, but these will serve to give a general idea of 
their appearance, conditions they produce, their economic im- 
portance, and means of combating them. 

THE THORN HEADED WORMS 

The thorn headed worms belong to the class of Acanthoec- 
phala, and infest the intestinal tract of fowls including ducks, 
and geese. The body of the worm is cylindrical. It is not 
provided with a digestive tract, as in the worms classed as 
round worms and belonging to the family Nematoda. It has 
transverse markings and, like the tapeworm, lives by absorp- 
tion through its body, nutrients eaten and digested by the fowl, 
thus, to a degree, robbing its host. Furthermore, when pres- 
ent in great numbers, these parasites cause digestive derange- 



II 



A 



INTERNAL PARASITES 125 

nient and emaciation of their host. They are provided with 
a globe-shaped proboscis, in the place of a head, armed with 
miniature hooks, which enables it to attach itself to the inner 
lining of the bowel. It embeds these booklets in the mucous 
lining of the intestine; thus attached by its head, it floats in 
the intestinal content from which it absorbs digested nutrients. 
There are two distinct sexes, a male and a female, the female 
being the larger. 

Echinorynchus Polymorphus 

The Echinorynchus Polymorphus is one of three species 
of the thorn headed worms that live in the intestine of the 
duck. It is also found in the goose. 

Description. — The Echinorynchus Polymorphus varies in length 
from one-fourth to one inch. The body is orange-red in color. It 
has a neck-like constriction, just back of the hooked, globe-shaped 
structure. Its proboscis is provided with eight or nine rows of 
booklets. It is round in shape with transverse marking giving it 
somewhat the appearance of being segmented. 

Life History. — This worm reproduces by laying eggs. The inter- 
mediate host is certain fish, as the shrimp, and cray fish. Ducks 
and geese become infested by eating fish infested by the larval or 
cystic form. The shrimp and fish become infested by eating the 
eggs of the worm, in its food that has been contaminated by drop- 
pings of a fowl that harbors the adult thornheaded worms. This 
parasite has not been reported from the United States. 

FLUKES 

(Flat Leaf -like Worms) 

The flat leaf-like worms belong to the family, Trematoda. 
Flukes of birds are harbored, for the most part, in the intes- 
tinal tract. It is believed that this worm is exceedingly rare 
if found at all in the States as we have no authentic case 
reports. 

Notocotyle Verrucosum 

The Notocotyle Verrucosum is perhaps the most commonly 
described fluke as infesting the intestinal tract of fowls. The 
body of this worm is white or reddish-white and from one- 
twelfth to one- fourth of an inch long. It is oblong in shape, 
narrow in front and rounded behind. It is found in the intes- 
tine, principally the caecum or blind gut. It has not only been 
reported as infesting the duck, but also the fowl. 

No serious results have been attributed to the flukes of 
poultry, although it is well known that they cause serious dis- 
eases of other animals. There have been three or four other 
similar worms described which closely resemble this one. 



126 POULTRY DISEASES 

INTESTINAL WORMS OF CANARIES 

If the bird is infested with worms, these may at times be 
noted in the droppings. Place in the drinking water ten drops 
tincture gentian to each ounce of the Hquid. After two days, 
give two drops ohve oil by the mouth by means of a medicine 
dropper. 

DISEASES DUE TO PROTOZOA 

(Single Celled Animal Organisms) 
Trichomoniasis 

Trichomoniasis is a disease of young chicks caused by a sin- 
gle celled animal organism, the TricJionionas pullorum. 

The baby chicks are attacked at the age of 10 to 14 days. 
They are rarely attacked after the chicks are four weeks old. 

Symptoms. — The affected chicks may droop, huddle to- 
gether, usually the appetite remains normal, and in later 
stages, the wings drag the ground due to weakness of the wing 
muscles, the eyes are closed, heads pale, temperature usually 
subnormal, 102° F. 

In the earlier stages, diarrhea may be absent, but is always 
present in later stages. 

Treatment. — Intestinal antiseptics are indicated, such as 
bichloride of mercury 1 to 10,000 which is made by placing in 
one gallon water 6 grains bichloride of mercury and three 
grains of citric acid. Also ipecac, five grains to the pint of 
water, may be given. Sulphocarbolates compound, five grains 
to the pint of water, is indicated. Or permanganate of potash 
in drinking water, making the water deep red. 

Postmortem Fmdings. — Upon opening the abdominal cavity, 
after death, there may be noted no sign of disease except an 
anemic condition. The caecum, or blind gut, may be slightly 
enlarged and its contents slimy and upon microscopic exami- 
nation the crypts in the mucous lining are observed to be filled 
with the germs, Trichomonas pullorum. 

Coccidiosis 

Coccidiosis is a disease caused by some species of the genus 
coccidium, a single-celled animal organism. The coccidia may 
not only infest the intestinal tract, but also the liver, kidneys, 
and even the lungs. It is a serious disease, once it gets a foot- 
hold and may infect young chicks, pigeons, turkeys, geese and 
wild birds. 

The variety most common is the Coccidium, Avium, some- 
times called the Eimeria Avium,, and belongs to a class of pro- 
tozoan parasites known as sporozoa. 

The resistant stage is called the oocyst and is most easily 



INTERNAL PARASITES 127 

recognized on microscopic examination of the intestinal con- 
tent, the parasite generally appearing as an oval body contain- 
ing a central granular mass surrounded by a highly refractile 
zone with a double limiting border. The size varies from 25 
to 35 micra in length, and from 15 to 20 micra in breadth. 

Life History of the Coccidium. — There are two principal stages in 
the life cycle of the coccidium. First, a stage of asexual reproduc- 
tion called schizogony in which male and female elements unite to 
form resistant bodies for life outside the animal cells and outside 
the body of the bird. In the asexual stage the newly formed para- 
sites pass from one cell to another, and it is during this cycle that 
the great destruction of intestinal mucosa occurs. 

The oocyst referred to above reaches the intestine of the bird 
through food or water contaminated with droppings of an infected 
bird. In the intestines of the bird the tough cyst wall is softened 
and there is liberated four small bodies or spores, which are slender 
with one end more pointed than the other. These young coccidiae 
are called the sporozoits, are very actively motile, and pass into 
the epithelial cells of the mucosa lining the intestines. It now 
begins to grow in size finally destroying the cell. This reaches the 
trophozoit stage. When fully developed in the trophozoit stage it 
measures 10 to 12 micra in diameter. The nucleus now divides into 
a number of daughter nuclei which arrange themselves in a zone 
at the periphery or outer portion of the cell. This constitutes the 
schizont stage and represents the beginning of asexual multiplica- 
tion or schizogony. Each nucleus becomes surrounded with proto- 
plasm and assumes a long narrow form with pointed ends. The 
length measures from 6 to 10 micra. These bodies, known as the 
merozoits, differ from the sporozoits in that their nuclei contain 
a small particle of chromatin, the karyosome. From 8 to 20 mere- 
zoits are formed from one schizont. On separation from one an- 
other, the merezoits work their way into other cells, lining the 
intestinal tract and may repeat the process of development just 
described, or there may take place a differentiation into sexual 
forms within the newly invaded cell. This latter process is called 
gametogony. 

Second, a stage of reproduction called gametogony. Two forms 
of the organism are here produced, the macrogametocytc , or female 
mother cell, and the micro gametocyte or male mother cell. Both 
forms are oval in shape, the macrogametocytc being larger and 
more granular than the microgametocyte. The macrogametocytc 
gives rise only to one daughter cell or macrogamete, measuring 
11.8 to 17.5 micra long. The microgametocyte produces a large 
number of minute, biflagellate, actively motile male cells called 
microgametes, 3 to 4 micra long. 

Fertilization takes place through the entrance of the micro- 
gamete or male cell into the structure of the female cell or macro- 
gamete at the thin spot at one end known as the micropyle. After 
the entrance of the male cell the macrogamete forms protoplasm 
which plugs the opening and prevents the entrance of other micro- 
gametes. The nuclei of the two cells now unite forming a zygote 
which proceeds to spore formation or sporogony. 

In the sporogony or zygote state it is surrounded by a tough 
double membrane which is extremely resistant. This is the oocyst 
stage. The contents is at first granular and grayish in appearance. 



128 POULTRY DISEASES 

Later the granular material is gathered into a compact circular 
mass in the center of the oocyst. The nucleus imbedded in the cen- 
tral mass now undergoes division into two and these in turn divide, 
forming four daughter nuclei. These are surrounded by cytoplasm and 
are separated from each other. There are now four rounded bodies 
formed within the cyst. These are the sporoblasts. Later the 
sporoblasts lose their rounded form, become oval and are inclosed 
within cell walls. In this form it is called a sporocyst and from 
it develops a spore which contains two voung parasites or sporo- 
zoits which are capable of invading an epithelial cell of the mucous 
membrance of the intestinal tract. The life cycle of the parasite is 
from eight to ten days. 

Coccidian White Diarrhea 

Coccidian white diarrhea is caused by coccidae, a single- 
celled animal organism, and occurs in chicks^..after the tenth 
day and usually runs a rapid course. The chicks become 
infected through feed or water contaminated by the excreta 
of infected birds. An infected bird may be introduced in the 
flock, or the chicks may be placed in coops or on ground on 
which infected birds have recently been kept, or they may 
be shipped in infected coops. Infection may also be carried 
on the feet of men, dogs, cats and other animals and by wild 
birds. Sparrows, ever a pest of the poultry house and yard, 
carry many infectious disease germs, as well as parasites, as 
mites. It may be possible that a chronic type of coccidiosis 
occurs in older birds and thus perpetuate and disseminate the 
coccidiae. 

Symptoms. — In young chicks, the disease develops rapidly 
and the death rate is high. The chick is weak, unkempt 
feathers, wings droopy due to muscular weakness, loss of 
appetite, or in some cases, birds may continue to eat. The 
birds stand in bunches, and peep much of the time. They 
appear stilty and the droppings are fluidy, or a whitish or a 
whitish-brown color and paste up the vent region and may 
prevent bowel movement. The discharges may be streaked 
with blood. 

Postmortem Findings. — LTpon opening the abdominal cavity of the 
chick dead of coccidian diarrhea one may find the intestines con- 
gested and ulcers of the intestinal tract, especially of the caeca. 
The caeca may be filled with a bloody semi-solid mass which dis- 
tends the organs. This mass consists of blood cells, exfoliated 
mucosa, fecal matter, and numerous coccidae in the oocyst stage. 
See Figs. 48 and 49. 

Treatment.— GivQ one-third teaspoonful catechu to each 
gallon drinking water, or ipecac may be used in the same pro- 
portion. Sulphocarbolates compound may also be tried. One 
to ten thousand bichloride of mercury has also given most 
excellent results. Permanganate of potash is also indicated. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 



129 



A cathartic should be given once a week. Give one tablespoon- 
ful of epsom salts in the drinking water for each 100 baby 
chicks, or to fifty chicks four weeks old, or to each twelve 
older chicks. 

Coccidiosis of Adult Fowls 

Adult fowls may also be infected with coccidia, becoming 
infected in the manner described above for chicks. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms depend upon the age of the 
fowl and the degree of infection, usually the disease develops 




Fig. 48. Fig. 49. 

Magnified 100 Times. 

From a chick that had died from coccidian 
white diarrhea, a, muscular layer; b, remnant of 
gland; c, degenerating mass. There is complete 
destruction of the mucous membrane. 

Fig. 49. Section B in Fig. 48, Magnified 
900 Times. 

Shows various stages of the coccidium avium, 
a, oocyst; b, sporoblast; c, sporozoit; d, schizont, 
merozoites within, surrounded by a distintegrat- 
ing cell mass; e, polymorphonuclear leucocyte. 



rapidly. At times, it may assume a chronic type. The affected 
birds, in the acute type, appear droopy, stand around away 
from the balance of the flock, loss of appetite and gradual 
emaciation. In semi-acute cases, the fowl develops a gradual 
and progressive listlessness and loss of activity with emacia- 
tion. The comb becomes pale and periods of dejection, dur- 
ing which the bird stands in an isolated position, increase as 
the disease progresses. The appetite may remain normal and 
even may be ravenous when fowls are aroused at feeding 
time. During intervals between regular feeding, there is little 
effort to scratch for feed. Death may occur in from one to 



130 POULTRY DISEASES 

three weeks after the a])])earance of the first symptoms. Death 
may occur suddenly or the bird may be in an unconscious state 
for many hours preceding its. death. Leg weakness and 
paralysis may accompany the disease. 

Affected geese show great weakness and rapid emaciation. 
When compelled to move, after walking a few steps they may 
fall and after a struggle roll on their backs, a position w^hich 
is frequently assumed. 

Treatment. — The same as outlined above for chicks is indi- 
cated. 

Postmortem Findings. — The intestinal tract and principally the 
caeca are the ones involved. 

In the caecum the mucous membrane may be completely de- 
generated and forming a part of a caseated mass. On microscopic 
examination, the necrotic material appears as an amorphous mass 
in which cells in various stages of degeneration, mucous, food ma- 
terial and many coccidia. The affected mucous membrane is de- 
nuded, congested, and even small hemorrhages. 

Preventative Measures. — In considering preventative meas- 
ures we must regard the means by which the infectious matter 
is distributed and the source from which it comes. The coc- 
cidia are eliminated from the body of the bird through the 
droppings by way of the bowel, since the mucous lining of 
the intestines are affected. Infected premises, then, will be 
all places in which sick fowls have been kept and all objects, 
living beings, water, feed, litter, houses, ground, etc., which 
can be soiled with the droppings of the sick birds and con- 
sidered as carriers. 

The drinking water must be from a source wdiere it has not 
been possible for contamination, and infected ditch water must 
be avoided. If it is not certain that the supply is free from 
contamination, then the water should be boiled. The feed 
should be dry, distributed in clean, non-infected containers, 
and placed in disinfected troughs. Green feed is always dan- 
gerous and must be from a field known not to be infected and 
given cut fine in a trough. 

Close the i)oultry house in such a manner that no small wild 
birds can get in. If new birds are to be introduced into the 
flock, they should be from sources known to be free from 
infection. Quarantine them for several weeks in a house some 
distance from the resident fowls before allowing them to mix 
with the other birds. 

Hatching eggs should be ])lunged, immediately after arriv- 
ing, into a strong solution of alcohol. Take only thoroughly 
healthy broody hens. 

Keep the ])()ultry houses, incubators, feeding buckets, tools 
and other equipment clean, keep the soil dry and frequently 



INTERNAL PARASITES 



131 



thoroughly spray the house and utensils with a four per cent 
solution of some standardized disinfectant dip of a coefficiency 
of at least five or six. 

Each bird affected with diarrhea should immediately be 
separated from the balance of the flock. Burn the dead birds. 
Kill and burn all birds considered incurable. The litter of the 
house and yard should be frequently cleaned and the cleanings 
burned. 

Never move the chickens from an infected house to another 
house, not even when the disease has disappeared from the 
house in question. Consider the house as infected and the 
chickens as carriers of the infectious matter and keep the 
whole severely isolated. Once the house having been cleaned 
by killing off the remaining birds, disinfection should again 
be carried out in a thorough manner. The soil should be 
removed to quite a depth, at least six inches, from the floor 
of the house and fresh non-infected soil be put in its place. 
The outside yard can be flooded with 1 to 1,000 bichloride of 
mercury, using one gallon to each ten square feet. Do not use 
the house again till at least one year. These measures can be 
successful only in the case of birds in confinement, because 
in this case the propagation of the disease can be easily 
controlled. 

Coccidiosis in Wild Ducks 
(Coccidiosis of wild ducks is a disease caused by Coccidiae) 




Img. 50 I'M-.. 51 

Fig. 50. Pulmonary Coccidiosis of a 

Wild Duck. 

a, nodules in lung caused by the coccidiuni, 

natural size. 

Fig. 51. Intestinal Coccidiosis of a 

Wild Duck. 

b, ulcers caused by the coccidiuni, natural 

size. 



132 POULTRY DISEASES 

Wild ducks may be attacked in considerable numbers. Such 
birds are found dead around the lakes in which they are accus- 
tomed to inhabit. The birds become weak, unable to procure 
food, emaciate and finally die. 

Postmortem Findings. — Small peral-like nodules may be observed 
throughout the lungs. Ulcerations of the mucous lining of the 
intestinal tract is also observed. This has been observed as ex- 
tending through the entire length of the intestinal tract. Upon 
microscopic examination these lesions, as well as the lung nodules, 
show coccida. 

Renal Coccidiosis 

Renal coccidiosis is a disease of the kidneys caused by the 
coccidiae, a single-celled animal organism. 

Raillat observed the invasion of the kidneys of a goose with 

coccida in which the symptoms were those of progressive 

emaciation, w^eak, staggery gait. The bird was observed to 

roll over on its back, thus assuming a dorsal position. There 

is a loss of appetite, gradual emaciation, unthrifty appearance 

and finally death. 

Postmortem Findings. — At autopsy the kidneys showed small 
whitish nodules, varying in size up to a pinhead. At times the 
lesions are found rather diffused. A microscopic examination of 
the nodules show them to be filled with masses of the encysted 
coccidae. 

PROTOZOAL HEPATITIS OF PIGEONS 

Protozoal hepatitis is an inflammation of liver due to pro- 
tozoa, single-celled animal parasites, invading that organ. 

A variety of protozoa, the Carconwnas liepatis, has been 
observed to have caused an inflammation of the liver in a 
pigeon. The microscopic parasites are provided with one or 
two flagella or hair-like tail appendages, which enables them 
to move about in the liquid it happens to be in. Upon post- 
mortem examination it was observed that the liver appeared 
large and studded with multiple foci or small areas of dead 
liver tissue. 

Young pigeons may die suddenly without showing symptoms 
of any disease. 

SARCOCYSTIS 

Sarcocystis is a condition in which the fowl is afifected by a 
protozoa or single-celled animal organism belonging to the 
genus sarcocystis. It affects the striped and unstriped mus- 
cular tissue, connective tissue and at times the visceral organs. 

The disease formerly described under the head of disease 
of the subcutem, is thought to be due to calcified sarcocysts. 
There is found, at times, peculiar disc-shaped yellowish or 
yellowish-gray bodies in the loose connective tissue that 



INTERNAL PARASITES 133 

attaches the skin to the underlying structures. These bodies 
are only one or two millimeters in diameter and upon being 
sectioned and examined under a microscope show by their 
microchenical action that they contain calcium or lime salts. 
This condition is found in fowls of any breed and in any con- 
dition, but is rather more common in those fowls thin in flesh. 
There is no evidence of it being an acute reaction of the tis- 
sues and is apparently of no constitutional significance. All 
efiforts to isolate an organism or to reproduce the condition 
have been negative. There is a possibility that it may be a 
calcification of a parasitic invasion as stated above. 

LEUCOCYTOZOON OF DUCKS 

Leucocytozoon disease is a disease among young ducks in 
which a single-celled protozoon parasite invades the leuco- 
cytes or white blood cells of the blood. 

The leucocytozoon or organism causing this disease is spin- 
dle-shaped and 35 to 60 microns in length and 10 microns in 
breadth. It has an elongate oval, or irregular-shaped nucleus, 
with dark chromatic band extending along one border. At 
each end the parasite terminates in an acute angle. 

Symptoms. — The disease runs a rapid course, with few well- 
marked symptoms. There is partial loss of appetite and the 
bird does not come when called at feeding time and in later 
stages the sick duck lies in a semi-comatose condition with 
the neck bent backward and the head resting upon the dorsal 
portion of the spinal column. When roused from this stupor, 
the bird experiences a period of intense excitement during 
which remarkable movements are made. The head is held in 
various positions, or describes circles in the air, or at other 
times swings to and fro. In some cases, the neck is completely 
turned on itself with the head resting on the ground in an 
upright position. The power of equilibrium is lost and the 
bird turns over backward until exhausted. In recovered birds, 
there may be lameness and difficulty of locomotion. An inflam- 
mation of the eye may be observed in which case there is an 
accumulation of pus. Only 25 to 30 per cent of the affected 
birds recover. 

Postmortem Findings. — At death there is found an acute hemor- 
rhagic inflammation of the large intestine. Other lesions are not 
described as being observed. 

TRYPANOSOMIASIS OF BIRDS 

Trypanosomiasis of birds is a condition in which the blood 
of the bird is infested by a protozoon belonging to the genus 
try pano soma. 



134 POULTRY DISEASES 

The blood of a large number of wild birds is infested by 
trypanosomes without producing any noticeable disease. Nine 
species of trypanosomes have been observed in birds. Among 
the birds are included fowls and pigeons. 

Malaria of Fowls 

Malaria of fowls is caused by a protozoon parasite called 
the Plasiuodium danielczvskyi. This parasite has many points 
of resemblance to the malaria parasite of man. The parasite 
occurs in large numbers in wild birds. The only domestic 
bird to have been reported as infested by this parasite is the 
pigeon. As high as 90 per cent of the affected birds die. 

Symptoms. — The affected bird is mopish, plumage losing its 
lustre, and the bird becomes emaciated and dies. 

Postmortem Findings. — The blood of sick birds may be 
watery and less abundant. The blood may be pale and coagu- 
lates slowly. The spleen is of chocolate color and swollen, 
being twice its normal size. 

ENTERO-HEPATITIS— BLACKHEAD 

Entero-Hepatitis or blackhead, is a disease of the liver and 
intestine caused by a protozoon, the Amcba Meleagridis, and 
is hence placed under the protozoal diseases. The first part of 
the word refers to the intestine and the latter to the inflam- 
mation of the liver. It has been commonly called blackhead 
because it was supposed that the head always turned a dark 
purple or black. This is, however, seldom the case. 

This disease affects mostly turkeys, though the author has 
observed 42 out of 43 Silver Spangled Hamburg chicks die of 
the disease at the age of about five weeks. The lesions of 
the chicks were the same as those of turkeys and the Ameba 
meleagridis present in the liver and affected caecum. Among 
young turkeys, it is cjuickly fatal. It has partially annihilated 
the turkey industry in sections where it was formerly profitable 
and carried on extensively. 

Cause. — This disease is claimed, by Dr. Theo. Smith, for- 
merly of the Bureau of Animal Industry, to be due to a pro- 
tozoon, the Amcba Meleagridis, a microscopic organism. This 
germ is always found in the diseased areas in the cecum or 
blind ])ouches and in the liver of the affected birds, which are 
chiefly young turkeys and less common in young chicks, espe- 
cially of the more delicate breeds. Others attribute the disease 
to a protozoon belonging to the genus coccidium, but this con- 
fusion has, perhaps, come about by finding coccidiae in the cecal 
lesions as a secondary invader. The protozoon is ]:)urely a 



INTERNAL PARASITES 135 

connective tissue parasite and does not enter epithelial cells 
at any time, as does the coccidium. 

Mode of Spread. — As will be seen later, the protozoon 
escapes from ulcers in the ceca or blind gut and passes with 
the droppings to the ground. Feed or water contaminated with 
such droppings transmit the disease germs to other susceptible 
birds. Chronic carriers or cases in older turkeys or in chickens 
may keep the premises infected for a long time. These germs 
entering the liver and the mucous membrane lining the ceca, 
cause inflammation and degeneration. Usually the cecum 
becomes infected first and later the liver is invaded and inflam- 
mation of its structures ensues. 

The period of incubation, that is, the time from which a 
bird is infected till the first symptoms appear, is usually from 
ten to twelve days. 

The exposure of young incubator turkeys to older birds 
from infected flocks on infected ground produces the disease 
within two weeks. The exposure toolder infected birds on 
fresh ground also produces blackhead, but after a somewhat 
longer period. • Blackhead may be complicated with cocci- 
diosis. Blackhead may appear in an isolated group of turkeys 
and suggests that birds other than turkeys, as hens, may be 
carriers of the, parasite. Young diseased birds may fail to 
carry the disease. Turkeys fed with infectious material con- 
tract the disease. Spontaneous outbreaks among turkeys 
penned with incubator chicks has occurred. In our experi- 
ments, turkeys hatched and brooded with hens on new unin- 
fected ground contracted the disease and died. Field experi- 
ments show a steadily increasing concentration of the infec- 
tion on the ground where infected turkeys are reared even 
though the ground be ploughed and seeded before use. The 
growth in the intensity of the disease may be in part ascribed 
to an accumulation on the soil of infectious agents during any 
given season after they had been introduced. There is a pos- 
sibility that other birds are carriers of this disease and the 
attraction of wild birds in large numbers and greater variety 
on account of the food supply in the turkey inclosures and 
the more intensive cultivation of the land, may be a cause of 
the spread of the disease. It was observed that the intensity 
of the outbreak due to the confining of young turkeys with 
birds over a year old, which had been infected (luring the pre- 
ceding year, or on ground previously occupied by them, was 
in all instances much greater than in the spontaneous out- 
breaks. It was observed that soil on which turkeys had been 
kept was infective for young ones. The protozoa parasite 



136 



POULTRY DISEASES 



invading the walls of the cecum and liver multiply very rap- 
idly when once started. vSmith and Graybill have shown that 
living embroys of the Heterakis Papillosa transmit the dis- 
ease to susceptible turkeys. They collected from the ceca of 
healthy chickens these worms, cut them to pieces in a small 
quantity of a normal salt solution, 0.85 per cent sodium chlor- 
ide, to liberate the eggs or ova. The suspension was kept in 
small dishes, Petri dishes, at room temperature and distilled 
water added from time to time. After the cultures had been 







. 


y- ; 


^^^^J 


^H^^E 


\ 




H^H- 


Er- O 




^V 


4*^^ ^ 




^V 


% ^v^^^^H^^^^BH 




r 



Fig. 52. Enterohepatitis of the 
Liver of a Turkey. 

a, yellowish-white necrotic areas. This 
liver weighed 452 grams, nearly one 
pound. 



kept for seventeen days, examination showed that the ova 
contained living embryos. These embryos fed to young tur- 
keys produced the disease. The rukcys dying of blackhead 
in one to two weeks' time. The worms, when invading the 
cecum in large numbers, break down the resistance of the 
bird and the invading Ameba gain entrance and develop the 
disease much more rapidly. Turkeys should be hatched in 
an incubator and brooded artificially and kept away from both 
turkeys and chickens and from infected ground. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms noted in the poults are that 
they lag behind the balance of the flock — a sign of weakness. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 137 

This is soon followed by more pronounced weakness as shown 
by the slow careful gait with droopy wings and a tendency 
to stand in one spot. There is now a loss of appetite and 
loss of weight. The temperature taken of several turkeys with 
blackhead and the same number of controls does not show 
an elevation of temperature, that is, there is apparently no 
fever. 

Entero-hepatitis is common in turkeys between the ages of 
one month and one year, although I have seen the disease in 



B 




Fig. 53. Cloudy Swelling of the 

Liver of a Turkey Due to 

Enterohepatitis. 

This is a section from b in Fig. 52, 
magnified 900 times, a, liver cells in a 
state of cloudy swelling; b, liver cells 
undergoing disintegration, necrosis; c, 
congested blood vessels; d, white blood 
cells, eosinophiles abundant in this 
disease; e, Protozoa causing tire disease. 



birds that were much older. Several outbreaks have been 
studied in this laboratory. Only one case was observed in 
a hen, but it has been observed among chicks from four to 
five weeks of age, in which the mortality was close to one 
hundred per cent. The disease is also reported in a peacock 
and in wild birds, as pheasants. 

The symptoms are not manifest till the disease has pro- 
gressed to a considerable extent. The bird as stated above 
appears dull, later the wings and tail may droop; the feathers 
become ruffled and the bird sits around much of the time ; 
diarrhea supervenes, the discharge being of a greenish-yellow 
color; there is a loss of appetite; the bird grows gradually 
weaker, showing muscular weakness, droopy wings and usually 
dies in from three to ten days after the first symptoms appear. 



138 



POULTRY DISEASES 




Fig. 54. A Turkey Affected With Blackhead. 

Note the droopy wings, dejected appearance, tail lowered, and general signs of 

weakness. The ceca from this turkey are shown in Fig. 55. 




J'"iG. 55. Ceca <ii- th:-. 'I'lkkkv Shown in I'ig. 34 Tiiai Died of Ulackiiead. 

1, affected cecum sliowing it to be much enlarged and covered with cheesy pus; 
2, normal cecum. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 139 

In the cases that run longer the hird becomes emaciated. The 
head may or may not turn |)urj)le. l^rom the cases in which 
the head turns purple the disease gets its name — blackhead. 

Although turkeys of all age are susceptible to blackhead, 
youth suffers most. Cases seldom appear before the thirteenth 
day. The most critical period begins at about the thirty-fifth 





Fig. 56. Photomicrograph of a Sec- 
tion OF THE Liver From a Case 
of Blackhead. 
a, protozoa causing the disease; b, giant 
cell. 



day after hatching. Young poults are observed to be sick no 
more than four to six days. While old birds may recover, 
young birds probably never do. 

Postmortem Findings.— Upon opening the abdominal cavity one's 
attention is attracteid by the enlarged liver with areas of dead or 
necrotic tissue. This is a caseation necrosis, and is shown in Fig. 
52, of the liver of a turkey dead of blackhead. 

The ceca or blind pouches, are also affected. Usually only one is 
diseased as shown in Fig. 55. The enlargement is usually a short 
distance from the blind end or point. Upon opening the ceca, 



140 



POULTRY DISEASES 



ulcers and areas of dead tissue, caseation necrosis, are observed in 
the mucous lining. There will also be noted a straw-colored fluid, 
edema, in the loose tissue about the heart. 

Fig. 53, taken from an area in the edge of the necrotic portion 
marked B, in Fig. 52, illustrates the condition of the cells of the 
affected part. A, illustrates the liver cells as they are first affected 
in a state of cloudy swelling. B, shows the cells farther along in 
the disease process, in which it may be noted that the nucleus has 
entirely disappeared and the cell is in a state of disintegration, or 
necrosis. C, shows a congested blood vessel which is in a state of 
passive congestion. D, shows white blood cells or eosinophiles re- 
ferred to above. There is also noted in these areas giant cells. 




Fig. 57. Blood Smear From a Case of 
Blackhead. 

.Showing intense eosinophilia; a, red blood 
cells; b, eosinophiles; c, mononuclear leucocytes. 
The blood of birds normally contains a high per- 
centage of eosinophiles. 



Fig. 56 b, illustrates a giant cell; a, protozoa causing the disease. 
A like microscopic examination of sections froin the kidneys in- 
dicates that poisonous products have been taken up by the blood, 
for in these sections we find degenerative changes — congestion, 
cloudy swelling, and focal necrosis. 

Fig. 57 shows a microscopic field from a blood smear from a 
turkey affected by entero-hepatitis. It will be noted that there is 
an intense eosinophilia. Fig. 58 shows a field from a portion of 
the kidney, in a state of cloudy swelling and focal necrosis — evi- 
dence of absorbed poisonous substances. Fig. 55 shows one of 
the ceca, the inner wall shows ulceration, the wall is thickened, 
and its tissues forced apart by masses of the protozoa — the ameba 
melagridis. 

A microscopic study of the blood showed the following: Hema- 
globin, IZ per cent; red blood cells, 2,000,000; white blood cells, 
73,000. The differential count showed: eosinophile white blood 
cells, 86 per cent; neutrophile white blood cells, 1 per cent; lymph- 
ocyte white blood cells 11 per cent; mononuclear white blood cells, 
1 per cent; mast cells, 1 per cent. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 



141 




Fig, 58. Section of a Kidney, From a 
Turkey That Had Died of Blachead. 
a, cloudy swelling; b, area o£ focal necrosis. 
Note in the dead areas the absence of nuclei. 




Fig. 59. A Photomicrograph of a Section Showing Masses of the Ameba 

Meleagridis. 
1, shows a typical parasite with its small nucleus. 



142 POULTRY DISEASES 

Treatment. — Thorough cleanHiiess of the henhouse and 
yards followed by careful disinfection as outlined under cocci- 
diosis. Care as to feeding and watering, and intestinal antisep- 
tics are indicated as recommended for fowl cholera. In this 
condition ipecac has given good results. Use 5 grains to the 
pint of water. Also the triple sulphocarbolates compound. 
Give one-half grain per bird twice a day in the case of large 
birds, or with young poults and chicks five weeks old give one- 
third this dosage. 

It has long been known that milk feeding stimulates rapid 
growth in poultry as in all other animals. It has also been 
shown that milk feeding of chicks prevents to a large extent 
certain intestinal disorders. The same stimulating principle 
applies to turkeys and there is a possibility that acidity plays an 
important part. Since the greater death rate is among young 
poults, Hadley has recommended a limited feeding as follows, 
believing that overfeeding or crowding young poults favors 
the development of this disease : First 48 hours no feed ; third 
day, chopped Ggg, including the shell, is given at the rate of 
two grams a day (32 grams make an ounce). The amount of 
Qgg is gradually increased till the end of the tenth day, then 
gradually decreased till the end of the second week, when e:gg 
feeding is discontinued. The fourth day green chopped feed 
such as lettuce or sprouted oats is given in increasing amounts. 
On the fifth day rolled oats are added and discontinued at the 
end of the sixth week. On the ninth day mash is given as fol- 
lows : corn meal 6 parts, wheat bran 4 parts, wheat middlings 
2 parts, and linseed meal 1 quart. Sour milk to drink should 
be given throughout. 

The following scheme of feeding poults has been suggested as a 
means in warding off blackhead where the hens are known to be free 
from the organism: 

1. Hatch the turkey eggs in an incubator, in the meantime having 
hens set on china eggs in nest boxes or brooders on the permanent 
range. 

2. Remove the poults from the incubators about twenty-four 
hours after hatching, and distribute them at night among the hens, 
giving each hen from twelve to fifteen. Be sure and see that the 
hen accepts them before leaving them. 

3. Give no feed before the pouUs arc two days old. Each brood 
may then receive two teaspoonfuls of egg chopped fine with some 
green feed such as nettles, rape, lettuce, dandeline, or onion tops. 
A little cracker may be added to take up the surplus moisture so 
that the mixture will not be pasty but crumbly dry. 

4. This feed mixture may be repeated for the remainder of the 
feedings upon this day, or bread soaked in sour milk may be sub- 
stituted for the meal. , , ,. 

5. During the first three or four days of feedmg the poults re- 
ceive four meals each day, at about eight o'clock, eleven, two, and 
five. After this but three meals are given. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 143 

6. On the second day of the feeding about the same rations are 
given, but one of the meals may be of chick grain, and some rolled 
oats may be added to the chopped egg mixture. 

7. The third day of feeding is like the second. The poults are 
allowed to run in their inclosure. 

8. On the fourth and fifth day of feeding, the number of meals 
may be reduced to three, at eight o'clock, twelve, and five. The 
amounts are slightly increased and a little grit may be added. 

9. When the poults are about a week old they may be allowed to 
run free with the old hen on the range on pleasant days when the 
grass is dry. Chopped egg in the ration is reduced and omitted by 
the seventh day of feeding. 

10. On the sixth day, the feeding is put on a time basis. Several 
spoonfuls of feed are put on the tray and well distributed, but the 
poults are not allowed to eat for more than about three minutes 
at any one meal. 

11. By the end of the second week, the time limit is reduced to 
two and one-half minutes, since the poults are now obtained more 
feed on the range in the form of insects. 

12. About the same time sour milk is introduced. The whey and 
curd well mixed, is put in shallow pans or in troughs, scattered 
about the range. It is at first given each morning and night at the 
rate of about one quart to each forty poults, and is gradually in- 
creased in amount until by the beginning of the fourth month one 
quart may be given for each twenty birds, each morning and night. 

13. During the second month, which is the critical period for 
young birds, the feeding is continued about as in the latter part of 
the first month. But, after the age of about six weeks, the number 
of meals per day may be reduced to two. Green feed in the form 
of chopped carrot tops, onion tops, or lettuce should be given in 
abundance; it should comprise at least one-half of the ration for 
each meal. The time limit remains at about two and one-half min- 
utes. 

14. When the poults are about six weeks old the brooder coops 
should be replaced by larger houses made of lath and covered 
partly with roofing paper. Such a house will accommodate them 
till the poults are three or four months old. These should be con- 
structed about three by five feet, and three feet high. Adult houses 
should then be provided and all the poults, with their mothers, be 
brought together in a single roosting shed. 

15. The feeding for the third month is like that of the second 
except that the amount of milk is gradually increased and that 
grain mixture of equal parts of cracked corn and wheat may be 
gradually substituted for the chick grain. 

16. As the autumn months advance and insect life disappears, 
the time limit may be lengthened to three or three and one-half 
minutes. In rainy weather the noon-day meal may be added and a 
four minute period allowed. Rolled oats may be omitted and the 
ration made to consist of grain mixture with an occasional feed of 
rolled oats or bread and milk. A mash may now be allowed con- 
taining some beef scrap or fish meal. 

17. Before Thanksgiving the breeders for the coming season 
should be selected and marked. Their feeding for the winter may 
consist of the following grain mixture given at the rate of one 
quart for six or seven turkeys each night and morning: cracked 
corn 3 parts, barley 2 parts, wheat 2 parts, oats 1 part. 



CHAPTER V 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF FOWLS 

Birds are not subject to the manifold ills of the digestive 
system that prevail in higher animals and man, at least the list 
of digestive ailments v^^hich we recognize in fowls are not so 
numerous as they are in higher animals. Beginning with the 
anterior portion of the digestive canal, the mouth, we find its 
part in digestion relatively unimportant compared to that of 
the same organ in mammals, and its ailments correspondingly 
fewer and less important. 

The food is not masticated in the mouth as in higher animals, 
but is swallowed whole, passing into the crop, where it is soft- 
ened by the action of the fluids secreted by that organ and 
perhaps also by the action of bacteria swallowed with it. After 
masceration in the crop is accomplished, the food passes into 
the proventriculus, or first portion of the stomach, where the 
processes of digestion are carried still further by the secre- 
tions, or juices, of that organ. The thoroughly soaked and 
softened food is next received into the gizzard and ground, with 
grit consisting of pebbles, always present in that organ, to a 
paste by the action of its strong muscular walls. Grit is con- 
tinually being taken in by the fowl, the surplus being passed 
out with the droppings, thus there is a tendency to a residual 
or normal amount, though this amount may vary in diflferent 
individuals. 

From the gizzard the food passes into the small intestine, 
where digestion is carried on much as it is in mammals, by the 
action of the secretions of the intestine, liver and pancreas. 

Domestication has afifected the feeding habits of fowls much 
as it has the feeding of horses. In the wild state birds, like 
horses, eat most of the time, but they secure their provender 
more slowly. Under domesticated conditions they are fed 
nutrients in a highly concentrated form, two or three times a 
day, and are required to exercise but slightly to get it. Fre- 
quently disturbances of digestion, largely due in one way or 
another to engorgement, is the result. Later feeding methods 
include a litter on the floor from which the fowls are required 
to scratch and exercise in getting their grain feed, this exercise 
in conducive to good health. 



146 POULTRY DISEASES 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE BEAK 

This condition is very rare. Cases have been noted in which 
an object, such as a sunflower seed, has become wedged be- 
tween the branches, or rami, of the lower jaw or beak, and 
serious trouble has resulted from this pressure ; for example, 
paralysis of the tongue, inability to eat, starvation due to the 
inability to take in food, and death follows unless relieved. 

Symptoms. — A fowl with obstruction of the beak will shake 
its head and scratch at its beak. Upon noticing such symptoms 
in a fowl the caretaker should examine its mouth and remove 
the obstruction. In fact a good poultry keeper will always, 
after feeding his fowls grain, stop to observe if any birds are 
eating and if one hesitates it is caught and examined, and, if 
it cannot well take care of itself it should be removed from the 
flock, as abuse by other birds of one of the flock in a weak- 
ened state soon become a serious matter. 

PARCHED TONGUE OR "PIP" 

Among poultrymen one often hears of ''pip" as a disease of 
fowls, particularly of chickens. It is one of those names like 
"hollow horn" or "loss of cud" in cattle, which signifies no 
s])ecific disease or condition, but merely a symptom of some 
ailment, real or fancied. 

In some of the respiratory diseases, particularly in roup and 
chicken pox, the nostrils may be closed by an exudate and the 
fowls compelled to breathe through the mouth, and if, as is 
usually the case, the bird has an abnormally high temperature, 
or fever, at the same time there is a tendency for the mouth to 
become very dry and the mucous membrane may crack and 
bleed. Owing to its dryness, the epithelium of the tongue may 
not exfoliate, or be cast ofi^ normally, and, being retained, may 
form a transparent horn-like material on the end of the tongue. 
This dryness of the mouth and the resultant changes are what 
is known as "pip." This dried end of the tongue should not be 
picked off, as often this causes death of the bird. 

This condition may also accompany diseases of the mouth 
or of the respiratory passage, in which, on account of the diffi- 
culty in breathing the bird holds its beak partially open. The 
surface of the mucous membrane may become dried and ca- 
tarrhal inflammation follow. The fowl will be noted to hold 
its mouth partly open and at intervals emit a shrill sound, ac- 
companied by a jerk of the head. 

Open the mouth and observe the tongue and mouth cavity. 
The tip, borders and attached portion of the tongue are ob- 
served to be covered by a hard, dry coating, which may also 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 147 

extend to the mucous membrane lining the mouth. Forcible 
removal of this membrane results in bleeding as the surface 
under the membrane may be ulcerated as a result of infection 
and death of the bird is likely to follow. 

Treatment. — In such .cases the treatment consists in the first 
place of measures directed at the primary cause ; that is, the 
condition which is producing the dryness of the mouth. The 
hardening and drying of the membranes of the mouth may be 
relieved by the application, several times a day, of a mixture 
of equal parts of glycerine and water. 

If cracks and ulcers have formed they should be bathed in a 
solution of potassium chlorate water, twenty grains of the 
former to an ounce of the latter. This is best accompanied by 
dipping the bird's beak into a vessel, containing this solution, 
five or six times and repeating every hour or two. If pus has 
formed in the ulcers, they may well be cleaned with a few 
drops of hydrogen peroxide before the potassium chlorate 
solution is used. 

STOMATITIS— SORE MOUTH 

Stomatitis is an inflammation of the mouth. There are 
many different kinds of sore mouth due to many causes. The 
ulcerative form of sore mouth is one of the most common 
forms and may be caused by a fungus described on page t05. 
It also accompanied chicken pox or roup when it is called 
avian diphtheria which is described under respiratory diseases 
on page 213. In the ulcerative type of sore mouth the diseased 
areas appear covered with a yellowish-white cheesy material 
which is the result of the products of inflammation being 
thrown out on the surface. 

Sore mouth may also be caused by injury due to foreign 
bodies, bites, chemicals as strong acids, lye, corrosive sub- 
limate, or hot foods. 

Simple catarrh or acute inflammation may also affect fowls. 
It is caused by some irritant, or to bacterial infection of the 
part. 

Treatment. — In the ulcerative kind scrape off the cheese- 
like material and rub the part with lunar caustic or stick nitrate 
of silver till all parts turn white. Repeat in five to seven days 
if necessary. 

In the acute inflammation kind wash the mouth with a satu- 
rated boric acid solution. Repeat three times a day. 

CROUPOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE PIGEON 

(Canker) 
Croupous inflammation of the ]:)igeon is a disease affecting 
the throat of young squabs in which there appears a cheesy 



148 POULTRY DISEASES 

mass in the upper part of the esophagus. The squabs become 
affected early, in fact, while still being fed by the parents. In- 
fection apparently comes from the adult birds. Certain pairs 
of pigeons are noted to invariably have this trouble with their 
squabs. The disease or tumor-like area becomes larger, due to 
the accumulation of the croupous exudate, from an inflamed 
area. 

Symptoms. — The young squab is unable to swallow. If in 
birds old enough to eat grain they find it impossible to eat. 




Fig. 60. Croupous Inflammation of the Throat 
OF A Pigeon. 

a, necrosing mass made up of pus cells, fibrin, 
and debris. 

The squab rapidly becomes emaciated if not relieved. The loss 
to some lofts is quite a serious matter. The lump in the throat 
is easily seen and felt. 

Postmortem Findings. — On opening- the esophagus in the region 
of the disease the cheesy mass appears. A microscopic examina- 
tion of the part shows an inflammation, the surrounding tissue 
being filled with polymorphonuclear cells, the cells of inflammation. 
The mass thrown out on the surface as a result of this inflammation 
is made up of pus cells and fibrin. The condition is of an infectious 
nature. The disease does not confine itself to the upper part of the 
esophagus but may affect the structures at the entrance of the 
chest or thorax, again it has been observed in the region of the 
eyes, and in the roof of the mouth, in the structures of the region 
of the neck, and again internal lesions of the abdominal and chest 
cavities affecting the lungs, liver, and even the kidneys. It has also 
been observed in the crop, and in the pharynx, and in the bronchi 
and involving the chest wall. In such cases the bird shows symptoms 
of going light, appears languid, dull, stupid, losing appetite, gradually 
becoming emaciated and finally death. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 149 

Treatment. — In the case of the squab with throat affection, 
grasp the squab forcing its mouth open, and with a very small 
pus scoop or curette, gently remove the cheesy mass. Then 
with a swab made by twisting cotton around the end of a small 
stick, and this swab di])]^ed in pure iodine gently swab out the 
parts. This must be thoroughly done. The first treatment is 
often successful. 

A similar disease has been studied in fowls in which cases 
the croupous exudate or mass is removed and the parts 
swabbed with pure iodine as with pigeons. 

IMPACTION OF THE CROP— CROP BOUND 

The crop becomes impacted with food when its passage is 
obstructed. Obstruction of the crop is generally due to swal- 
lowing bodies that cannot pass readily from the crop through 
the second portion of the esophagus to the proventriculus, that 
is, to an obstruction of the outlet of the crop and the com- 
mencement of the second portion of the esophagus. Hog 
bristles, small feathers, straw, etc., are usually the cause of 
such obstructions. An interesting case was studied some years 
ago in which brooder chicks, just beginning to feather, were 
given potato parings, after which they died. There was found 
in each crop a potato paring extending from the crop through 
the second portion of the esophagus into the proventriculus. 

By referring to Fig. 2 these organs and their relations can 
be seen. 

Low vitality of the bird may cause impaction of the crop. 
It may accompany acute diseases as fowl cholera, or improper 
nourishment, the thin muscular walls of the crop may become 
paralysed or so weakened as to be unable to force its contents 
onward into the proventriculus. Depraved appetite as often 
seen when fowls are fed too heavily on cottonseed meal may 
cause them to eat litter and thus obstruction of the outlet of 
the crop. 

Symptoms. — The fowl becomes dull, occasionally opening its 
beak and fetid gases are sometimes emitted. There is an ob- 
sence of appetite. The bird stays away from the balance of 
the flock, is inactive, usually stands off in a corner with crop 
protruding. The crop thus appears enlarged, the walls tense, 
doughy to the touch and foreign bodies may be felt through 
its walls. Obstruction of the crop rarely disappears without 
treatment and if no relief is given the bird may die in a few 
days. Death is usually due to exhaustion and starvation. For- 
eign bodies in the stomach of fowls often cause perforation 
of its wall. Such a case has been observed in the stomach of a 
goose. The foreign body was a pointed jMCce of metal. We 



150 POULTRY DISEASES 

also, in a fowl, observed a piece of small wire about one inch 
long that had penetrated the wall of the proventriculus and ex- 
tended to the base of the heart, and in still another case a pin 
that had penetrated the wall of a gizzard of a hen. 

Treatment. — Where the obstruction is due to weakened walls 
of the crop water may be forced into the mass within the crop 
and by massaging the material may be forced out through the 
gullet or esophagus. An antiseptic solution should be used as 
there is usually considerable fermentation of the obstructed 
food. 

Where the cause is due to foreign bodies as hog bristles, 
feathers, and large pieces of straw it will be necessary to open 
the crop and remove the material. To do this operation pro- 
vide a needle, a half curved surgeon's needle is preferred 
though an ordinary sewing needle will do, and white cotton 
thread. A small, sharp pointed knife. Have an assistant hold 
the fowl on its left side and pluck the feathers from over the 
crop. Make a bold cut through the skin and crop wall, all at 
one stroke, and about two inches long. Make the cut in the 
skin slightly longer than the cut through the crop. With the 
index finger remove all the crop content and observe that all 
has been removed from the outlet into the second portion of 
the esophagus. Wash out the crop with a weak antiseptic 
solution and wash off foreign matter from the wound. Then 
sew the wound passing the needle through the skin, and crop 
wall on one side and passing the needle through the crop wall, 
and skin on the other side, draw tight and tie. After the first 
stitch has been made make the stitches about one-half inch 
apart and in a continuous manner not cutting the thread till 
all stitches have been made. The crop wall and the skin must 
be sewn with the same stitch. 

After the operation place bird in a comfortable coop and 
give only slightly moistened bread for the first three days, after 
which may be given light feed and limited amount of water. 

IMPACTION OF THE INTESTINES 

By impaction is meant the accumulation in hard mass of 
food in such a manner as to obstruct the passageway of the 
intestines. 

Impaction of the intestine is due to an obstruction of the 
bowel thus preventing the passage of the normal bowel con- 
tent. This condition is rare in fowls but has been observed. 
It may be due to masses of the intestinal worms, especially the 
Ascaris Inflexa and to tape worms. A case was observed in 
which the fowl had eaten coarse hay, similar to bermuda or 
])rairie, and this had obstructed the gizzard and ])rotrudcd out 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 151 

into the small intestine. Large pebbles, i)ieces of rags, and 
feathers may likewise obstruct the intestine. 

Canaries and other cage birds at times sufifer from impaction 
caused by sluggish peristalsis due to the sedentary life or lack 
of exercise, and heavy, indigestible feeds. Or from the lack 
of grit. Impaction of the caecum due to im])ro])er feeding may 
occur. 

The matting together of the vent fluff in diarrhea of baby 
chicks may prevent defecation. 

Symptoms. — There may be depression of the bird, listless- 
ness, loss of appetite, re])eated straining, as though trying to 
pass droppings, small amount of droppings jmssed at long in- 
tervals. Death may occur from necrosis of the wall at the 
point of obstruction and from exhaustion. 

Trcafnioif.—GWe to adult fowls a cathartic as castor oil, 
in one teaspoon ful doses. Epsom salts in one-half to one tea- 
spoonful doses. 

TYMPANY OF THE CROP— GAS OF THE CROP 

Gas of the crop is a condition in which the crop is distended 
by gas. This is either due to unnatural fermentation of the 
crop contents, or, is due to gas forming organisms. There 
may be present putrefaction of the contents of the crop. It is 
usually accompanied by an inflammation, or to a catarrh of the 
crop which interferes with its normal function. Eowls, at 
tim.es, have been noted to have enormously distended crops, 
which, upon examination, was observed to be filled w^ith gas. 
Usually these crops contain very little food. This condition 
more often affects chicks than older birds. 

Treatment. — ^Give intestinal antiseptics, such as one part 
carbolic acid to two hundred parts of water, or mercuric chlor- 
ide, corrosive sublimate, one part to ten thousand parts water. 
To make this put 6 grains bichloride of mercury, and 3 grains 
citric acid, in one gallon of water. The critic acid aids the 
bichloride of mercury to go into solution. The sulphocarbo- 
lates compound are also indicated, also a permanganate of 
potash solution, making water deep red. 

Immediate temporary relief may be given the fowl by liber- 
ating the gas through an aspirating needle or a small canula. 
The crop may then be irrigated, through the canula, with a 
mild antiseptic solution. Follow with two teaspoonfuls of 
castor oil and feed sparingly on easily digested food. 

ENLARGED CROP— PENDULOUS CROP 

Pendulous crop is a condition where the walls of the crop do 
not properly contract when the crop is empty and it hangs 



152 



POULTRY DISEASES 



down as a pendulous bag. Fig. 61 shows a Barred Plymouth 
Rock hen with a pendulous crop. 

Pendulous crop is due to weakening and stretching of the 
crop walls and may be due to catarrh, worms as the Filaria 
Tite, and to injudicious feeding. 




Fig. 61. Pendulous Crop in a Barred Plymouth Rock Hen. 



Treatment. — Pendulous crop causes little inconvenience to 
the bird and is incurable except by operating which consists of 
cutting out a piece of the crop wall. The operation is an easy 
one and similar to operation for crop bound described above. 

GANGRENE OF THE CROP 

Gangrene of the crop is a condition accompanied with death, 
or sloughing, of the crop wall and is a moist gangrene. The 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 153 

mucous membrane alone is affected and it results fatal to the 
affected birds. 

Symptoms. — The bird a])pears dull, unkempt ])lumage, loss 
of appetite, may stay apart from the balance of the flock, and 
may develop impaction of the crop. Upon opening the crop a 
very offensive odor is noted, the mucous lining will be observed 
in a necrotic, or sloughing state, and appears as a dark, some- 
times a greenish, caseous mass. 

Treatment. — In the earlier stages there may be given in the 
drinking water or in the feed intestinal antiseptics as salol, 
subnitrate of bismuth, or sulphocarbolates compound. If the 
condition becomes prevalent in a flock, the runs, yards, and 
hen houses should be thoroughly disinfected or the birds com- 
pletely changed to new ground, and in any case given clean 
feed and water. The sick fowls should be separated from the 
well ones and the dead fowls should be burned. 

CATARRH OF THE CROP— INGLUVITIS 

Catarrhal inflammation of the crop of fowls may be caused 
by irregular feeding, a distended crop and irritating and in- 
digestible feed, such as feathers, putrid meat, and irritating 
chemicals, may be mentioned as causes of this condition which 
is essentially a more or less chronic inflammation of the mu- 
cous membrane, lining the crop. If the crop be overdistended 
the strain on the muscles may be so great that paralysis results. 
In these cases there is noted a crop filled with a pulpy, soft, 
more or less gaseous mass. 

It may be noted after the ingestion of pointed objects. In 
pigeons, by too early removal of the squabs from the parent 
birds. In this case the glands of the parent bird that were 
active during the feeding of the young suddenly cease being 
used and become inflamed. 

Symptoms. — There is a loss of appetite. The fowl appears 
dull, repeatedly stretches its neck and swallowing becomes 
difficult. The crop is tender to pressure, soft to the touch, and 
at times, gaseous. Pressure on 'the crop may cause fetid gases 
to escape from the mouth. Repeated attacks cause the de- 
velopment of pendulous crop. 

Treatment. — If the crop is distended with a dough-like mass, 
grasp the fowl by the legs, holding with head down, gently 
press out the mass ; then by introducing water through the 
mouth and forcing it out as before, the crop, in this way, may 
be washed out. 

Give bland substances, such as gruel and mild antiseptics, 
such as salol, subnitrate of bismuth, or sulphocarbolates com- 
pound. 



154 POULTRY DISEASES 

DEPRAVED APPETITE— PICA 

A depraved appetite is one where the bird eats Htter a^ 
straw, sticks, feathers, etc., in addition to feed and in many 
times in preference to their normal feed. 

This condition may be due to disease of the digestive organs 
or it may be a vice learned from others. Hens learn to eat 
eggs by finding them broken or by seeing an egg-eating hen 
and copying as a cribbins^ horse acquires the habit from his 
mate, or as one hog may learn to eat chickens from seeing an- 
other eating one. 

Feather eating, or plucking the feathers of its mate, is an- 
other habit that may be acquired from mimacry. The only 
thing to do with a feather eater or an egg eater is to kill them 
as the habit cannot be broken. Obstruction of the gizzard, 
lack of grit, insufficient or unsuitable feed and catarrh of the 
crop are factors of greater or less importance in causing a de- 
praved appetite. Heavy feeding of cotton seed meal and espe- 
cially to pullets in one of our experiments resulted in eight 
per cent develo])ing depraved appetite, eating litter followed, 
and crop impaction resulted. 

INDIGESTION 

Indigestion is the lack of power of the bird to digest and 
assimilate the food eaten. 

Indigestion of fowls may result from a lack of quality or of 
appropriate volume of feed or by the ingestion of foreign 
bodies. Pigeons which are normally gramnivorous, or grain 
eating, will suffer if they cannot get grain and are forced to 
eat herbage or green feeds. Likewise it is reported that birds 
in zoological gardens are liable to suffer from lack of appro- 
])riate food. Storks, swans, herons, geese and ducks in the 
winter and spring failing to obtain their natural food, such as 
slugs and molluscs, eat water mosses to allay their hunger. 
These foods are to them true foreign bodies and cause indiges- 
tion which in some cases is fatal. It is the same in the small 
insectivorous or semi-insectivorous birds. When it is at- 
tempted to feed them exclusively on grain or vegetable mashes 
they succumb to the diet. 

Grains too large for the digestive organs of a bird act like 
a foreign body and cause fatal indigestion. Young pheasants 
may be killed in this way by grains of corn. And one should 
be careful in feeding grain to very young baby chicks. 

Overloading the digestive organs is a general cause of in- 
digestion of birds. Dry grain which is palatable to fowls is 
less suitable to others such as palmipedes which are accus- 
tomed to soaking their food in water. For this reason we 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 155 

give our geese and ducks wet mashes instead of grains. Such 
birds may readily overload their stomachs with dry grain 
which may swell and cause death. 

Indigestion may be due to lack of sufficient grit in the giz- 
zard. This material is indispensable to grain-eating birds. 
Omnivorous or mixed feeders also need grit. If grit is not 
present grain may accumulate in the gizzard and cause a fatal 
indigestion. Grit lasts a long time, as experiments at the North 
Carolina Experiment Station have shown that grit may remain 
in sufficient quantities in the gizzard to grind feed for at least 
a year. 

Treatment. — See that the fowls have sufficient grit. Give 
cathartics as epsom salts one tables])oonful to each six birds. 
Dissolve the epsom salts in water and mix mash with the solu- 
tion or give as drink. 

The treatment in parrots which is shown by the bird yawn- 
ing, refusing food, and nervous, give grit and castor oil, also 
put 6 grains bicarbonate of soda in the drinking water each 
day. 

DISTENSION OF THE BURSA OF FABRICUS 

The Bursa of Fabricus is a gland located in the superior 
wall of the cloaca. Occasionally this bursa may become 
enormously distended into a cyst-like structure containing a 
clear, colorous fluid. 

CLOACITIS 

Cloacitis is an inflammation of the cloaca of the fowl. Ul- 
ceration of the anus and cloaca is an aj^parent contagious dis- 
ease and is frequently observed. 

Symptoms. — The anus and cloaca become inflamed, red in 
color, and protrudes, and later may ulcerate. From the ulcera- 
tive form there has been isolated an acid fast bacallus which 
was thought to have something to do with the disease. There 
is a very stinking odor accompanying this condition. 

Postmortoii Findings. — Upon autopsy the inflammation may be 
found to extend the entire length of the large intestine, or rectum. 
Tf the inflammation extends the entire length of the rectum it 
would be a proctitis. Thus there may be a catarrhal proctitis or 
an ulcerative proctitis. The condition may extend to the lower 
portion of the oviduct. Such hens become sterile and an occlu- 
sion, with scar tissue, has been observed in the lower portion of the 
oviduct. The disease is thought to be communicated from bird to 
bird, and especially by copulation. 

Treatment. — Apply with a swab pure iodine. Repeat every 
three days till cured. Antisei)tics are indicated. Good results 
have been obtained, in some cases, with a one ])er cent solution 
of sulphate of iron where the ulcers extend into the bowel. 
The liquid is injected, three times a day, with a syringe. 



156 POULTRY DISEASES 

PERITONITIS 

Peritonitis is an inflammation of the peritoneum or smooth, 
delicate, shiny membrane, Hning the abdominal cavity and 
reflected over the viscera, the liver, intestines, gizzard, etc. 

Peritonitis may be acute or chronic. The exudative or puru- 
lent variety is the most common in fowls and especially heavy 
laying hens. 

Cause. — There may be various causes of this condition. 
Streptocicci and a variety of bacilli have been observed in 
these cases. There are numerous specific diseases of a septi- 
caemic nature in which the involvement of the peritoneum is 
of secondary consideration. Other causes are infected yolk 
concretions or deposits, ovarian infection, extension of inflam- 
mation of the oviduct, or rectum, as a result of rupture, per- 
foration of the digestive tract by foreign bodies, or as a result 
of ulcerative changes in the intestinal wall such as sometimes 
occur in coccidiosis of fowls. 

Symptoms. — Diagnosis is difficult except by postmortem 
examination. In the acute peritonitis, which is the more rare 
type, the bird may die shortly after showing signs of being 
sick. The fowl shows a loss of appetite, unkemped plumage, 
elevation of temperature, weakness and depression. Diarrhea 
may be present, especially when the outer covering of the intes- 
tine is involved. In case of rupture of the rectum the drop- 
pings will be scanty owing to the passage of a part of the in- 
testinal content into the abdominal cavity. The abdomen may 
show a pendant position. On palpation or feeling the abdo- 
men, the fluctuation of liquid may be felt. The presence of 
concretions may be determined by their dense consistency, 
free, and of rounded contour. 

Postmortem Findings. — Peritonitis in fowls is not usually marked 
by extensive congestion of the serous lining of the abdominal cavity 
and abdominal organs. There may be locahzed areas of congestion 
and inflammation and hemorrhages. The purulet variety is most 
common especially among laying hens. There will be found an 
exudate and collections of more or less cheesy material among 
the intestines. The serous exudate may be straw colored, or more 
often cloudy and putrid. The septic condition is generally accom- 
panied with a cheesy exudate covering the viscera. Yolk concre- 
tions may be found. When rupture of the oviduct occurs there 
may be found many eggs in the abdominal cavity. 

ASCITES, DROPSY 

Ascites is an accumulation of licjuid in the abdominal cavity. 
Ascites is common in fowls and especially hens and has been 
observed in canaries. No specific causative agent is responsi- 
ble. The accumulation of fluid results from a filtration of 
blood serum through the serous lining of the abdominal cavity. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 157 

It may be present in chronic diseases of the Hver, kidneys, 
heart, and in chronic suppurative inflammation of the peri- 
toneum. It may also accompany chronic cases of enteritis or 
inflammation of tlie bowel, sarcomatosis, tuberculosis, or other 
debilitating diseases. 

Symptoms. — The abdomen may be distended and in some 
cases it will be greatly distended. Upon feeling the abdomen 
it will appear tense. Shaking the fowl will cause the sound of 
liquid. 

Treatment. — Pass a trocar and canula or a hypodermic 
needle through the abdominal wall, being careful not to injure 
any of the vital organs. Allow the liquid to drain. This will 
give temporary relief. 

NEPHRITIS 

Nephritis is an inflammation of the kidneys. Acute nephri- 
tis is frequently met with in fowls. Baby chicks which are 
allowed to be exposed to cold rains and become chilled or 
which are not properly cared for and improper heat supplied, 
suffer with acute congestion and inflammation of the kidneys. 

Chronic indurative nephritis has been observed in the fowl. 

Acute parenchymatous nephritis has been observed in hens 
dying of purulent inflammation of the air sacs. 

Symptoms. — Acute and chronic inflammation of the kidneys 
interferes with the appetite, arrests growth in young fowls, 
and at times there is a loss of co-ordination. Gradual emacia- 
tion and death results. 

Postmortem Findings. — The kidneys are increased in size; the tissue 
is rather firm in consistency in the chronic indurative type. The 
organ may be of a grayish-yellow color. There is hypertrophy of 
the interstitial connective tissue. The sectioned surface in acute 
parenchymatous nephritis is gray, due to the cloudy swelling, and 
is soft. The uriniferous tubules are partly destroyed and the epi- 
thelium in many parts may be in a state of fatty degeneration. 

SUPPURATIVE INFLAMMATION OF THE GIZZARD 

Suppurations or pus formations on the surface or in tissues 
in the form of abscesses are common in the fowl. Pus in the 
bird is almost always of a cheesy nature. Suppuration and 
abscess formation has been observed in the fowl. 

Symptoms. — In the case that has been observed there was at 

first a slight diarrhea, mopishness, and no interest in life. 

Gradual emaciation and finally death. 

Postmortem Findings. — The carcass was poor, being destitute of 
abdominal fat. There is an inflammation of the gizzard wall with 
an accumulation of a cheesy pus in one end of the gizzard. The 
testes are in an atrophic condition. If in a hen the ovary and ovi- 
duct will be shrunken and inactive. There may be secondary 



158 POULTRY DISEASES 

changes as shown in one case in which the liver weighed 60 grams, 
35 grams being the normal weight. The liver presented a grayish 
mottled appearance. In a microscopic study of the wall "of the 
gizzard through the part affected with suppurative inflammation 
there was noted a portion of the adjacent muscle to be densely 
packed with polymorphonuclear leucocytes, the cells of inflamma- 
tion as well as newly formed connective tissue. The pus consisted 
of fibrinous material and pus cells. 




Fig. 62. Suppurative Inflammation of the 
Gizzard of a Fowl. 
1, cavity of the gizzard; 2, wall in state of 
suppurative inflammation; 3, cheesy pus in cavity 
of gizzard; 4, normal gizzard wall. 

Sections of the liver showed passive congestion with hemaci- 
derosis. There was an acute inflammation, the inflammation 
cells, or polymorphonuclear leucocytes appearing jnore densely 
packed in the perivascular spaces and immediate adjacent tis- 
sue. In some areas the inflammation seemed rather diffused 
while in other parts of the liver there appeared a tendency 
toward focalizing areas of inflammation, 

CALCULI 

Calculi are earthy concretions which have been settled out 
of liquid and become a small stone. Urinary sediment in the 
form of calculi has been foimd in the fowl. These de]:)Osits 
may be located in the small collecting and transporting tul)ules 
of the kidney tissue and may consist principally of uric acid. 
These deposits appear as small nodules or stones. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 159 

EVERSION OF THE CLOACA AND OVIDUCT OF A HEN 

An eversion of the cloaca and oviduct, commonly called a 
prolapse, is the turning outward of the cloaca and the lower 
portion of the oviduct. 11ie condition may he so severe that 
even the posterior j^ortion of the large intestine or rectum is 
turned "inside out." 

Causes. — Among the causes of such a prolapse may be men- 
tioned stimulating feeds, aggravated constipation, and large 
eggs causing considerable straining. It may also be seen in 




Fig. 63. Eversion of the Cloaca and Oviduct of a Single Comb Rhode 

Island Red Hen. 
1, eversion of tire vaginal portion of the oviduct; 2, eversion of the cloaca, 
also the jjosterior portion of the large intestine. 

inflammation of the mucous membrane of the oviduct when 
this membrane may be seen protruding through the cloaca. In 
constipation the bowels may become gorged, and this in addi- 
tion to the obstruction when the egg canal contains one or 
more developing eggs, and the ovary, being active, is larger 
and added to the bulk, predisposes to this condition. It is also 
noted in heavy laying pullets that are being crowded by very 
stimulating feeds and especially in the earlier part of winter. 

Symptouis. — This condition is most often seen in heavy 
laying hens. The hen will be noted to strain as though trying 
to pass droppings. The mucous membrane will be noted to pro- 
trude through the anus. If not treated at once and the mucous 
membrane is allowed to continue to protrude through the anus, 
it soon becomes inflamed from exposure to the air and in- 
fection may take place. Later the parts may become ulcerated 
as a result of mechanical injuries or attack by germs. 

Treatment. — Wash the protruding parts with warm water in 



160 



POULTRY DISEASES 



which has been dissolved enough permanganate of potash to 
make the water a deep red. If congested and swollen tincture 
of belladonna application may aid in reducing the swelling. 
After the parts are thoroughly cleaned gently replace the pro- 
truding parts, being careful that the hands are clean and using 
on the fingers a small quantity of carbolized vaseline. Put the 
bird on light food for a few days. Do not give laying mash 
as it is the desire to stop, at least temporarily, egg production 
till the parts can have a chance to recover. Put the hen in a 
comfortable coop and give only a grain ration so that laying 
will cease and give the parts a rest and till she regains her 
strength and the parts become normal when she may be again 
placed with the balance of the flock. 




Fig. 64. Volvulus or Gut Tie of the Free Portion of the Small Intestine 
OF A Single Comb Rhode Island Red Hen. 
1, shows the tie strangulating the bowel; 2, passive congestion due to inter- 
ference of tire return flow of blood. 

VOLVULUS OR GUT TIE IN THE FOWL 

Volvulus or gut tie is a condition in which the bowels become 
displaced and a loop forms so as to tie a portion of the intes- 
tine in a knot. 

Volvulus has been observed in the free portion of the small 
intestine of the fowl. Fig. 64 shows a case of this kind. This 
was observed in a Single Comb Rhode Island Red hen, one 
year old. In this case note that the bowel is distended with 
gas. The picture shows that four loops are involved. Pas- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 161 

sive congestion was present in the strangulated portion of the 
intestine and it will be noted that this portion of the bowel is 
very dark. This tie was brought about by a part of the free 
portion of the small intestine passing through a rupture of the 
mesentery, the loop gradually growing tighter, causes an inter- 
ference of the circulation and passive congestion follows which 
is indicated by the very dark condition of the bowel, later the 
circulation of the strangulated part is entirely cut off and death 
of the strangulated part follows. 

INTUSSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINE OF THE FOWL 

Intussusception is an invagination of the bowel of a fowl. 
Among the causes are excessive and irregular peristalsis under 




l'"iG. 65. Invagination of the Bowel of a Four- Weeks-Old Buff Plymouth 

Rock Chick. 
1, point of invagination; 2, sli'owing invaginatcd part surrounded by the invagi- 
nating portion; 3, juncture of small and 'arge intestine; 3a, inflamed protruding 
portion of small intestine passing through the arms at 4. 

which condition there may be quite a length of the small intes- 
tine become telescoped, the outer or invaginating portion 
strangulating the inner invaginated portion, and disturbs circu- 
lation ; the onward movement of the food becomes stopped. 

Symptoms. — Little is known of the symptoms of this condi- 
tion in the fowl. If the invagination takes place in the poste- 
rior portion of the intestines a portion of the invaginated bowel 
may protrude out the cloaca. 

There is little that can be done in this condition and the 
fowl dies. 



162 POULTRY DISEASES 

INTESTINAL DISEASES OF CANARIES 

Intestinal disturbances of canaries are usually due to errors 
in feeding and watering. In diarrhea remove all green feed 
and do not give soft feed. Give just the normal seed supply. 
Feed the bird with a small piece of wet bread on which has been 
sprinkled subnitrate of bismuth. If the case does not yield 
to this treatment place in the drinking water one ounce of clear 
w^ater in which has been placed four drops of tincture of opium 
and fifteen drops of whiskey or brandy. 

In case of constipation give plenty of green feed such as 
lettuce, apple or chick weed. Add a pinch of epsom salts to 
the drinking water. Make the water so that it has a faintly 
saline taste of the epsom salts. 

CONSTIPATION 

Constipation is a common ailment of fowls and it is shown 
that where epsom salts are given to fowls once a week either 
in drinking water or the salts dissolved in water and the water 
used to mix mash that the birds do much better as it acts as a 
regulator for the eliminative organs. 

Fowls confined in small quarters without sufficient exercise 
are liable to suffer from constipation. Lack of green feed 
tends to constipation. Following diarrhea there may be a tem- 
porary or slight constipation. 

DIARRHEA DISEASES OF FOWLS 
Simple Diarrhea 

A simple diarrhea may be described as a frequent liquid pas- 
sage from the bowels not caused by a contagious disease. 

A condition of mild diarrhea is chronic in many fowls 
throughout life. This is especially true of certain breeds and 
varieties, especially the Barred Plymouth Rocks and especially 
if fed on rich food. In these cases there are no symptoms of 
the disease other than the softness or fluid condition of the 
droppings. Though this condition is probably due to a mild 
form of indigestion and the birds may not thrive or fatten or 
lay as well as those not so affected, the condition is not serious 
and ordinarily the poultryman pays little or no attention to it. 

It is when the soft, ])asty or liquid excrement has an offen- 
sive odor, and adheres to the feathers of the vent fluff region, 
staining them yellowish, greenish or brownish, that the matter 
becomes serious and interferes with the health of the bird. 
Young fowls are more susceptible to diarrhea from unfavor- 
able conditions, of which the commonest are improper feed, 
and exposure to cold, than are adult birds. 

When this reaction to external influences, cold, or when the 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 163 

irritation from indigestible matter within the intestine becomes 
severe enough to set up an inflammation of the mucous lining 
of the small intestine, it is termed enteritis. When it extends 
to the large intestine and the evacuations are accompanied with 
straining and some blood in the liquid discharge it is called 
dysentery. In both conditions there is an increased thirst, loss 
of appetite, high fever, and fluid discharge from the bowel, and 
in dysentery the discharges are streaked with blood. 




Fig. 66. Hemorrhagic Enteritis of a Hen 
A, small hemorrhages, natural size. 



Cause. — Among the causes which may produce a catarrhal 
condition of the intestinal mucous membrane and result in a 
simple diarrhea are digestive disturbances, sudden change of 
feed or an unnatural large supply of green feed, too much meat 
scrap or fish scraj), moldy, putrid, or too stimulating food, 
drinking water which contains much organic matter and hence 
is filthy and putrid, foul drinking vessels, drinking from stag- 
nant pools, and ex])osure to certain unfavorable atmospheric 
conditions are contributing factors, as is also the ingestion of 
irritating substances, such as lye, paint, spray-mixtures, un- 
slaked lime, etc. Baby chicks being allowed to become chilled, 
■ — fifteen minutes chilling may do it. 



164 POULTRY DISEASES 



^ 



Along with diarrhea due to these causes may be mentioned 
a like condition sometimes caused by the presence in the intes- 
tinal tract of certain species of worms and of irritating foods. 
Exposure in damp coops, cold rains, or draughts often result 
in digestive derangements of this nature. Birds being yarded 
on damp low ground. A bird, during molting, has poor pro- 
tection against inclement weather, from lack of feathers, and 
requires more care than at other times. 

Symptoms. — The plumage loses its smooth, well kemped ap- 
pearance ; the bird is depressed and not inclined to move about 
as much as usual ; there may be loss of appetite ; the crop is 
full ; digestion is slow ; the cloaca may be inflamed, appearing 
red and sensitive ; the evacuations from the bowels are fre- 
quent, the discharges being fluid, offensive and varying in color 
from whitish-yellow to greenish. In later stages the evacua- 
tions are quite spasmodic and forcefully ejected in a squirting 
manner, and the vent fluff feathers are soiled with the drop- 
pings. The affected bird gradually becomes weaker and there 
is a rise in temperature. It may eat little or nothing ; thirst is 
extreme in some cases. The fowl may die in two or three days 
or it may live two or three weeks. 

Postmortem Findings. — In opening the abdominal cavity after 
death the most noticeable alterations are in the intestinal tract and 
the liver. Upon opening the small intestine, areas of inflammation 
are noted, and occasionally a small hemorrhage is observed in the 
wall of the intestine. Microscopic exainination of stained sections 
from the vital organs as the liver, kidneys, etc., reveal degenera- 
tive changes; as cloudy swelling which is usually the most marked. 

Treatment. — Intestinal antiseptics are indicated such as the 
sulphocarbolates compound. Give to adult hens in one-half 
grain doses. Dissolve the compound in water and mix with 
mash. Repeat the treatment twice daily. Also permanganate 
of potash may be given in the drinking water. Use sufficient 
of the crystal to make the water a deep red color. One tea- 
spoonful of catechu in each gallon drinking water is also indi- 
cated. 



CHAPTER VI 

DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 

Infectious Blood Diseases 

FOWL CHOLERA 

Fowl cholera, also called chicken cholera, is a disease of 
fowls, turkeys, ducks and other birds, and is caused by a germ 
belonging to the rod-shaped nonmotile, polar staining, bacilli. 
It is placed in the Pasteurella group. It is called the Bacillus 
Arisepticus and lives, and rapidly multii)lies, in the blood, thus 
causing a septicaemia. 

The bacillus avisepticus is rather short, plump and with 
rqueous fuchsin stains deeper at the poles or ends, than in the 




Fig. 67. A Blood Smear From a Case of Fowl 
Cholera. 

Showing red blood cells, thrombocytes, mono- 
nuclear leucocytes, neutrophiles, and many 
polar staining germs, the Bacillus Avisepticus, 
the germ causing fowl cholera. 

middle. Hence it is called a polar staining bacillus. Fig. 67 
shows the germ, magnified 1,000 times. This drawing was 
made from a blood smear from an outbreak among turkeys and 
chickens, which was one of several outbreaks we have studied. 
The large objects are various kinds of blood cells. One of 
these, a white blood cell, a phagocyte, has taken up one of the 
germs. 

The germ of this disease can easily be isolated by ordinary 
laboratory methods from the heart, blood, the liver, spleen or 
kidneys of a fowl that has died of the disease. The colonies 
on plain nutrient agar at the end of twenty- four hours appear 
round, smooth, thin, shiny, with entire border and measure 
about 2 mm. in diameter. 

A blood smear made from the blood of a fowl sick of the 



A 



166 POULTRY DISEASES ^^^H 

disease and stained will show, under the microscope, the polar 
staining bacilli. 

The virulency of the fowl cholera germ varies greatly. Thus 
inoculations of from four to fifty of the organisms into the 
breast muscles of the fowl, of the most highly virulent strain, 
caused death. Other tests run by feeding the dekd carcases 
of cholera fowls to susceptible healthy birds resulted in infec- 
tion in from eighteen hours to many days. 

Mode of Spread. — The germs are eliminated from the body 
by all the natural discharges. Eggs have been proven to be 
infected with the .germs when produced by hens coming down ■ 
with the disease. 

Birds become infected by eating or drinking water that has 
been contaminated by the droppings of infected fowls. The 
germs may be introduced through a wound, or in the eye. 

The virulency of a strain can be increased by repeatedly 
passing it through birds or through guinea pigs. 

The death rate in an outbreak of fowl cholera runs from 
90 to 95 per cent. 

Birds often contract this disease from others at shows, and 
when taken back home infect the remainder of the flock and 
the premises, or a bird recently purchased from an infected 
flock, or eggs from an infected flock, or chicks recently hatched 
in infected surroundings, or infected droppings carried on the 
feet of men, animals, or by wild birds as sparrows, by rats, 
mice, dogs and cats, from henhouses where the disease exists, 
or carried by streams or irrigation ditches, or dried and carried 
by the wind. Even insects have been known to carry the con- 
tagion. Buzzards are common carriers of this disease. 

The germ of fowl cholera retains its power to produce dis- 
ease for weeks, and even months, about premises where it has 
occurred, unless they be thoroughly disinfected. The germs 
havfe been kept in test tubes, experimentally, for two years and 
still prove virulent and capable of producing the disease. It 
resists, for a long time, both drying and zero weather. 

The period of incubation, or time elapsing from the time the 
bird is infected, or takes in the germs, till the first symptoms 
appear, is from twelve to forty-eight hours in the case of the 
virulent strains though may be many days as indicated above 
in case of weaker strains of the organism. 

In our experimental work, in which the virus or germs, were 
introduced into the peritoneal cavity, this period was six to twelve 
hours; when the virus was given by the mouth it required twenty- 
four to thirty-six hours to produce the first symptoms of the disease. 
The birds died twelve to seventy-two hours later. 

Symptoms. — In the very acute cases the bird may suddenly 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 167 

drop (lead during the day without showing marked signs of 
the disease. Again birds may drop off the perch at night dead. 
Such symptoms may be the first intimation to the poultry 
keeper that his birds are seriously affected. In the less severe 
cases the first noticeable sym])tom is the yellowish or yellowish- 
green droppings. This is, however, not positive that the birds 
have fowl cholera as noncontagious bowel diseases cause yel- 
lowish-green drop])ings. The discharge varies considerably in 
color and consistency. It may be a greenish mass of ])asty 
consistency, a brownish red mucous, or a sticky transparent 
fluid. The yellow color of urates is the most constant char- 
acter. The sick bird appears in an unnatural attitude, there is 
a loss of appetite, great prostration, stairy feathers ; the bird 
mopes about, or sits around with tail and head down, giving 
it a ''ball" appearance, the comb becomes dark, the gait sway- 
ing, and there is trembling, convulsions, thirst is great, stand- 
ing at the trough of water for a long space of time, severe 
diarrhea. There is a high fever, the temperature varying from 
109° to 112° Fahr. The bird becomes rapidly emaciated. 

The chronic form of the disease usually appears at the end 
of an outbreak, occurring in the birds of the flock having the 
greatest natural resistance. The birds are dull, depressed and 
show persistent intermittent diarrhea. The mucosae are pale 
and emaciation is present. Inflammation of the joints may 
develop. 

The percentage of loss in the flock, if not treated, is very 
great. The disease spreads rapidly through a flock. Purebred 
birds, if badly inbred, have lower resistance and hence are 
more susceptible than farm run scrubs. It was observed in an 
outbreak of fowl cholera among ducks that the disease prog- 
ressed very slowly. Only one to five dying in the course of 
each week, in a flock of 500 ducks. 

Postmortem Findings. — There may be observed in some cases a 
reddening of the skin of the breast and abdomen. The comb is 
usually very dark red to black, or, at times it may be rather pale. 
Upon examining- the abdominal organs one notes a general con- 
gestion of the blood vessels. Small pin point hemorrhages may 
be observed in the heart and there may be present in the heart 
sac or pericardium a gelatinous exudate. Small hemorrhages may 
be noted over the small intestine and serous lining of the ab- 
dominal cavity. The contents of the bowel may be streaked with 
blood and may be frothy, pasty, and of a greenish, creamy, or 
brownish-red color. The liver is usually of normal size, dark in 
color, and may be studded with small necrotic areas. The liver is 
in a state of congestion, cloudy swelh"iig. and focal necrosis. There 
is congestion of the lungs with possible pneumonia, a croupous 
hemorrhagic pneumonia, under which conditions the lungs are 
hepatized appearing liver-like on the sectioned surface. A sero- 
fibrinous exudate may occur in the air sacs. The kidneys are con- 



168 POULTRY DISEASES ^^^HH 

gested, grayish on sectioned surface, a cloudy swelling, and paren- 
chymatous nephritis. The blood does not coagulate readily and 
upon microscopic examination is found teaming with the germs of 
the disease. 

Blood Study. — A study of the blood of a fowl sick of cholera 
shows the hemaglobin, 90 per cent; red blood cells, 2,520,000; white 
blood cells, 6,000; thrombocytes, 184,000. In this case there was 
very little reduction of hemaglobin, with some reduction of red 
blood cells or erythrocytes. There is a great reduction of white 
blood cells or leucocytes, a hypoleucocytosis. 

The differential blood count of the white blood cells showed 37 
percent eosinophiles, 2 per cent neutrophiles, 52 per cent small 
lymphocytes, 5 per cent large lymphocytes, 4 per cent mononu- 
clear leucocytes, with no mast cells observed. 

Treatment. — The germs are eliminated from the body of 
the sick fowl through the droppings and are carried by the 
feet of men, dogs, cats, rats, sparrows and by utensils taken 
from infected quarters to susceptible noninfected flocks, such 
utensils may be watering pans, buckets, dropping board scrape, 
bags, nests, shipping coops, feed hoppers, dropping boxes and 
innumerable other ways, all of which must be avoided and 
mfected utensils thoroughly and frequently disinfected, using 
a four per cent solution of some standardized coal-tar disinfect- 
ant dip. The house should be gone over several times with 
thorough cleaning and disinfection. The germs live two years 
or more so that unless thorough disinfection and cropping of 
the yards is carried out diligently it will not be safe for many 
years to bring susceptible birds on the premises. If the yard 
is small disinfection by use of bichloride of mercury, one to 
one thousand, using one gallon of the disinfectant to each ten 
square feet of surface, should be effective. 

Sick birds should be immediately removed from the flock and 
dead birds immediately burned. All birds that are incurable 
should be destroyed and their carcasses burned. 

In spraying the house a type spray pump shown in Fig. 30, 
l)age 86, may be used. Not only must the disinfectant, which 
may consist of a four per cent solution of a standardized coal 
tar disinfectant dip of a co-efficiency 5 or 6, be driven into all 
cracks of the house and the dropping boards soaked, and if a 
ground floor the dirt removed and replaced with new dirt, 
thoroughly sprayed, but also the nest boxes, drinking foun- 
tains, feed troughs and all utensils used about the hen house. 
The droppings and all litter must be burned. Do not take this 
infective material to the field as fertilizer as wild birds, as spar- 
rows, may spread the infection. 

For the birds intestinal antiseptics are indicated. Perman- 
ganate of potash in the drinking water, using enough of the 
crystals that when dissolved, will make the water a deep red. 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 169 

The tri])le sulphocarbolates using one-half grain per fowl, in 
hot mash, twice a day. 

Vaccine is prepared for use against this disease. The germs of 
the disease are grown in pure culture on plain nutrient agar, washed 
off with sterile physiological salt solution, heated in sterile flask 
in water hath at 60° C for 60 minutes and preserved in 0.25 per 
cent trikresol and tested on guinea pigs for toxicity and in culture 
for spores and is then ready for use. 

Serum against fowl cholera, both as a curative and as a preventa- 
tive, has been prepared. The serum is prepared either from the 
l)lood of horses or from the blood of cattle. The animal is in- 
jected either subcutancously or intravenousl3% usually in the letter 
way, with cultures of the organism causing the disease. The cul- 
tures consist of broth in which the organisms are grown. These 
injections are made weekly, in the beginning a very small quantity 
is injected, which quantity gradually increases and at last the animal 
is inoculated with very large quantities of the virulent cultures. 
After a period of about four months the animal is ready for the 
production of the serum from its blood as it now contains anti- 
bodies against the poison of the germs and when the serum of this 
horse is injected into the body of the fowl the antibodies it con- 
tains* neutralize the poison of the fowl cholera germs, should the 
bird be infected, and will also kill any germs present as it contains 
other bodies with bactericidal power, or power to destroy bacteria. 
The power then, to neutralize the poison or toxin is an antibody 
which has been manufactured by the cells of the horse in which 
the germs were injected and as a result of the injurious effects on 
these cells. 

From the horse thus immuned its blood is drawn into a sterile 
flask and the fibrin whipped out and removed and the serum thus 
prepared is bottled and kept stored in a cool place till ready for 
use. The immunity produced by this serum is effective for at 
least two weeks and possibly, in the case of high potenc}^ serum 
much longer. 

Some use a combination of the vaccine and serum under which 
conditions the immunity or resistance of the bird against the disease 
is much more lasting. 

It has been shown that the blood of chickens immunized 
against fowl cholera has immunizing properties for other 
chickens. The white of the egg and also the yolks of eggs of 
immunized fowls ])ossess similar properties. 

FOWL TYPHOID 
(Infectious Leukemia, or Klein's Disease) 

Fowl typhoid or infectious leukemia is an infectious blood 
disease due to a short, plump, germ with rounded ends called 
the Bacterium sanguinarium, and is easily isolated from the 
liver, heart blood, spleen or kidneys of a bird dead of the dis- 
ease. It reproduces the disease in inoculated birds, multiplying 
in the blood. 

In 1889 Klein working in England, in the county of Kent, 
identified this disease in that country and later on the contin- 



170 POULTRY DISEASES 

ent in the Netherlands, and from this time in Europe the dis- 
ease has been called Klein's disease and the bacillus causing 
the disease Klein-bacillus. 

The Dutch investigators report that the most of the cases 
of the disease appear in the s])ring and early summer, and dis- 
appear completely at no definite season of the year. The dis- 
ease is more common in adult than in young fowls and as- 
sumes an acute type. Chronic cases are seldom seen. 

The mode of spread is similar to that of fowl cholera. 

Symptoms. The first symptom is diarrhea, consisting of a 
thinnish, greenish-yellow color. There is a loss of appetite. 
The bird is very thirsty standing at the drinking fountain and 
drinking much of the time. Death usually comes on in a 
paroxysm. The course of the disease is very rapid, the sick 
bird dying in from a few hours to five days. 

The germ isolated from the sick bird's blood is observed to 
be destroyed at a temperature of 50° C. for fifteen minutes. 
A one per cent solution of carbolic acid is fatal to it in five 
minutes. It resists drying when in a thin layer for from seven 
to fifteen days. Animal inoculations show it to be fatal to 
fowls, ducks, pigeons, rabbits, guinea pigs and mice. The tem- 
perature of a fowl begins to rise on the second day after inocu- 
lations of small quantities of the bouillon culture and reaches 
109° to 114° Fahr. 

Other symptoms of the sick bird are those of an anemic or 
blanched appearance of the mucous membrane of the head, 
with a dull appearance and great prostration. There is a de- 
crease in the red blood cells or erythrocytes and an increase in 
the white blood cells or leucocytes. The latter increase is 
usually in the polymorphonuclear leucocytes. 

The fowl stays apart from the balance of the flock and may 
sit on the perch poles much of the time. The bird has a 
''drooped" appearance with head and tail down giving it the so- 
called ''ball appearance." The feathers are ruffled and in 
later stages the bird appears drowsy. 

It is not easy to difi^erentiate by the appearance of the sick 
bird, between fowl typhoid and fowl cholera. 

Postntortcin Findings. — The mucous membrane of the intestine is 
observed to be in a state of catarrhal inflammation. The catarrh, 
however, is very different as to degree, place, and development; it 
is often localized in a few spots, in other cases it extends from the 
stomach to the cloaca, or throughout the entire dierestive tract. 
There may he an inflammation of tlie ccca or hlind pouches. 
The character of the catarrh is either mucus with abundant exuda- 
tion or rather purulent with little exudation. The congestion which 
is generally not very prominent, manifests itself by a greater filling 
of the vessels of the mesentery and of the intestinal wall, and by 
the red color of the affected parts of the mucous membrane. 



I 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 171 

Hemorrhage may appear in the form of pin point bleeding in 
the mucous membrane. Hemorrhagic inflammation of the ceca 
or blind pouches also occurs. 

The liver is enlarged and mottled, with grayish patches due to 
areas of invasion by white blood cells or leucocytes. The liver is 
congested and blood may drip from the cut surface. There may be 
pin point areas of dead tissue, focal necrosis. The liver is easily 
torn, greasy, and degenerated. The color of the sectioned surface 
varies between brown and yellow. The bronzy discoloration of the 
surface is characteristic. When the liver is exposed to the air for 
a long time the bronzy appearance becomes more pronounced. 

Microscopic study of sections of the liver show an engorgement 
of the blood vessels and a breaking down of the liver cells. This 
degeneration extends from the commencement of cloudy swelling 
to complete necrosis as indicated above. 

The spleen is usually enlarged, and of a dark red color. The con- 
sistency of the pulp differs but little from the normal one. In some 
cases there is no trace of lesions. 

The kidneys show congestion which may be recognized by the 
minute red lines. Parenchymatous degeneration is present which 
is shown by the grayish color of the cut surface. The kidneys may 
be enlarged and acute nephritis present. 

The heart may appear normal or pale in color with grayish spots 
of necrosis. The blood is lighter in color and does not clot readily. 
The red blood cells decrease to a marked degree as the disease 
advances and the white cells become greatly increased. In stained 
preparations of the blood numerous red corpuscles are observed 
undergoing degeneration, there may be edema around the heart and 
an increased amount of pericardial fluid. 

Muscular tissue changes, in some cases, is quite marked. This 
has been observed in chicks but one to two months old. It is also 
observed in adult fowls. These are most marked in those cases 
assuming a more chronic form. All the muscles of the body show 
white specks on their exterior. In the proventriculous, as well as in 
the heart muscle above described. These white knot-like areas are 
due to infiltration of the point with white blood cells. The infiltra- 
tion also contains a great amount of the bacterium sanguinarium 
or germs causing the disease. 

Trcaiinent. — It is important that proper methods be em- 
])loyecl ill combating this disease. Measures of a general char- 
acter aim at combating the spread of the infectious matter. 
Birds from a sick flock should not be allowed to be sold on the 
market or even removed from the poultry yards. Birds too 
sick to recover should Ix' killed. All birds dead of the disease 
should be burned. Birds should not be allowed to be sold for 
breeding ptir])oses from a flock in which the disease has re- 
cently made its ap])earance, also eggs should be ])rohibited from 
sale for hatching purposes, (leneral cleaning of the yards and 
houses and the burning of the litter is indicated, also thorough 
disinfection as otitlined under Fowl, Cholera, which see. 

Intestinal antiseptics n^iay be given such as ])ermanganate of 
potash in the drinking water, using enotigh of the crystals to 
make the water a deep red. Also the stilphocarbolates com- 



172 POULTRY DISEASES 



pound and catechu. One teaspoonful of these latter to each 
gallon of water. 

Vaccine made by the following method is useful in this disease: 
The bacteria, grown during 17 hours at ?>7° C. on plain slant 
nutrient agar, is washed off with sterile 0.85% salt solution, and 
heated in a water bath at 60° C. for one hour. Each slant is washed 
off with 50 cc. solution and the dose when prepared is 3 cc. Vac- 
cinated chickens resist the infection and stay healthy when placed 
in infected yards. The Rotterdam Serum Institute report that the 
use of vaccine, in which over 10,000 fowls were vaccinated in an 
outbreak of Fowl typhoid or Klein's disease at Amersfoort, the 
disease was completely controlled. We have found the vaccine to 
contain some curative value. 

Serum, made from the blood of a horse that has been repeatedly 
injected with increasing quantities of the virulent cultures, has 
proved effective in combating the disease. The disease can, there- 
fore, be successfully combated by means of proper sanitary mea- 
sures, vaccination, and serum-therapeutics. 

MYELOID LEUKEMIA 

Leukemia is a condition of the blood consisting in a super- 
abundant development of white blood cells or leucocytes. It is 
a disease that is accompanied by enlargement of the spleen and 
liver, and by increased size of the lymph glands. 

Spontaneous leukemia occur in fowls. It is transmitted by 
the intraveneous or intraperitoneal injection of an organic 
emulsion. 

The clinical picture and changes produced in the blood and 
organs of the fowl are analogous to those which occur in 
human leukemia. 

In a case of spontaneous leukemia the following differential 
blood count was found : 

Polymorphonuclear with eosinophilic rods 8 per cent 

Polymorphonuclear with eosinophilic granules per cent 

Lymphocytes 2 per cent 

Large mononuclear cells 30 per cent 

Mast cells per cent 

Mononuclear myelocytes with eosinophilic granules.. 52 per cent 

Unclassified cells 8 per cent 

100 per cent 

It is associated by an infiltration of large mononuclear leuco- 
cytes. Atrophy of the bone marrow is noted. There is noted 
an accumulation of white blood cells in the bone marrow, 
spleen and liver. The bone marrow appears greyish-red in 
color. In these cases the liver is enormously enlarged also the 
spleen is enlarged. 

Treatment. — Prompt isolation of the well from the sick birds 
and sanitary measures for the fowl should be observed. 



% 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 173 

BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA 

Bacillary white diarrhea is a blood disease of baby chicks 
due to the Bacterium PuUorum. The disease is manifested by 
a frothy, white to whitish-brown, pasty discharge from the 
bowel which adheres to the vent fluff. 

The loss to the American poultry raiser from white diarrhea 
is greater than from any thing else, perhaps greater than from 
all other contagious diseases combined. It strikes at the root 
of the poultry industry ; no one can successfully conduct the 
business if he is unable to rear a reasonable number of chicks 
annually. 

Without treatment and control the resulting mortality, when 
white diarrhea has secured a foothold in a poultry plant, is ex- 
tremely high, often reaching ninety per cent of the season's 
hatch. The loss from white diarrhea in dollars and cents is 
enormous, almost beyond calculation. It is widespread 
throughout the United States and causes the loss of perhaps 
ten per cent of all chicks hatched in the country. By proper 
measures the disease is fairly easily preventable and a large 
number of the affected chicks will recover under proper treat- 
ment. 

The Bacterium PuUorum or organism causing the disease 
is a long, slender bacillus, with slightly rounded ends. It is 
nonmotile, does not licjuefy gelatin, does not produce pigment 
in culture media, and lives best in the present of oxygen. It 
somewhat resembles the typhoid bacillus and stains readily 
with ordinary aniline dyes. It does not stain with Gram's 
method and the organism does not produce spores. On nutri- 
ent agar, in twenty-four hours, the colonies appear small and 
white and increase in size slowly. They seldom reach more 
than two mm. in diameter. 

In artificial media the Bacterium PuUorum produces a toxin 
which is fatal to rabbits. When bouillon filtrate is injected 
intraveneously into a rabbit the animal dies in two hours, or if 
the rabbit has great resistance there is noted marked dif^cult 
breathing and death over night. In a rabbit dead from the 
toxin there is noted congestion of the liver, spleen, kidneys, 
adrenals, lungs and mesenteric lymph glands together with 
hemorrhage into the gastric mucosa. 

Mode of Spread. — Ovaries of laying hens, diseased, but still func- 
tioning, nia}'^ be infected by the germ. The germ can be isolated, 
particularly from the yolk, of at least some of the eggs, and as a 
result the chicks have the disease more or less developed when they 
are hatched, as conditions which favor hatching also favor the 
multiplication of the germs to an extent that toxins or poisons have 
already been produced in the young in sufficient quantity for the 
disease to at least manifest itself in a few hours after hatching, 



174 POULTRY DISEASES 

although ordinarily they do not begin to die until they are about 
three days to a week old. 

The whitish, frothy, pasty bowel discharges, more or less sticky 
and having a tendency to "paste up the vent," from these chicks 
is laden with the germs, and others of the flock soon become in- 
fected from contaminated food picked up from the ground. In the 
former case, chicks may begin to die soon after hatching; in the 
latter, in from three to four days, a few dying each day. 

The death rate is high, reaching in many cases as much as 
seventy-five per cent or more. Those that recover are stunted and 
do not make satisfactory growth. The greatest loss is from the 
first few days to, in some cases, two or three weeks. It is probable 
that the carriers are chicks that have recovered, but which still 
carry the organisms, especially in the ovary, as the human typhoid 
carriers carry the germs of typhoid fever, in the infected kidneys 
and in bowel ulcers. These "carriers" having established an im- 
munity, do not themselves succumb to the disease, and they rarely 
show any outward symptoms of it. 

Insanitary conditions, spoiled feeds, dirty, stagnant water, im- 
properly ventilated incubators, brooders, and buildings, or badly 
regulated heat, are factors in weakening the physical condition of 
chicks and favor ravages of diseases. 

Should one or more chicks be hatched, harboring the disease, 
the others of the lot are exposed early and nearly all may become 
affected. The chicks are especially susceptible during the first 
forty-eight hours of life, but are practically immuned after the fifth 
day. Brooders and incubators that have previously held infected 
chicks may be a source of the spread of the disease. Day-old 
chicks frequently carry the disease to other points and contaminate 
brooders or infect other chicks with which they come in contact. 

In this disease then, there appears for the most part, to have a 
well defined cycle. The bacterium passes from the infected ovary 
of the hen through the egg to the chicks and back to the ovary of 
the pullet which has survived the disease as a chick. 

Preventatwe or Eliminative Measures. — Knowing the cycle through 
which the bacterium passes we may begin the elimination of the 
infection from the flock by two methods. First, test all hens and 
males of the flocks on the premises with the agglutination method 
to determine the hens and cocks that are infected and sell such 
birds as food as they will transmit the infection to the eggs and 
thus perpetuate the disease. The agglutination test is applied in the 
following manner: a sample of the blood of the fowl is secured, a 
24 hour bouillon culture is made, a dilution of 1:50 and 1:100 is 
made with the serum of the blood and the bacterial culture. If 
bacterium is present in the fowl from which the blood was secured 
there will be present in that blood an antibody called agglutinin 
and this will cause the germs to form in clumps and this is called 
agglutination. Second. — Remove from the flock all chicks that do 
not develop white diarrhea and raise them under uninfected 
brooders, house, and yard and from these start a new flock. Ex- 
perience has shown that this has given most excellent results. 

Symptoms. — The wings are droopy, the feathers rttfifled, and 
the bird presents a sleepy appearance. The chicks are seen to 
huddle together, they have little or no appetite, the abdominal 
yolk is not properly absorbing; there is a whitish or whitish- 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 175 

brown frothy discharge from the bowel which adheres more 
or less to the vent fluff ; the eyes are closed much of the time 
and apparently the bird has no interest in life. They peep 
much of the time, the appearance in many is stilty, and the 
abdomen is prominent behind. In these cases after death one 
finds the yolk unabsorbed or only partially so. The intestines 
are more or less full. Late fall, winter or early spring- hatched 
chicks arc freer from the disease than summer hatched. This 
may be explained by the fact that hens with diseased ovaries 
gradually become poorer layers as the disease progresses, and 
lience, only lay in late spring or early summer, when nature 
intends reproduction of birds. Finally the hen may cease 
laying. 

The disease may show itself within two or three days after 
the chicks are hatched and spread rapidly through the brood. 
The period of incubation is four to ten days. Deaths begin to 
occur soon after hatching and may continue to the third or 
fourth week. Chicks which survive, remain stunted and un- 
thrifty for some time. In two series conducted at the North 
Carolina Experiment Station to determine the eflfect of diarrhea 
on the growth of chicks for the first eight weeks of their 
lives the results were as follows : In the first flock the birds 
without diarrhea weighed, at the end of eight weeks an aver- 
age of 0.47 pound each and the chicks that were affected by 
diarrhea, during the first few days of their lives, weighed on 
an average but 0.28 pound each. The chicks that had suffered 
an attack of diarihea weighed 19 per cent less than those that 
did not go through an attack. In the second series the chicks 
that did not suffer an attack of diarrhea weighed, at the end 
of eight weeks, 0.74 pound each, and those that had suffered 
such an attack weighed but 0.56 pound each. The chicks that 
suffered an attack of diarrhea weighed 21 per cent less than 
those not attacked by diarrhea. 

Treatment. — Intestinal antiseptics are indicated as in other 
forms of diarrheas. Permanganate of potash in tlie drinking 
water. Bichloride of mercury 1 : 10,000 in the drinking water. 
Catechu one teaspoonful in a gallon of water. Sulphocarbo- 
lates compound in similar quantities are recommended. 

ADULT FOWL INFECTION 

Bacteriuni Pitlloriuii infection of hens has occurred and 
caused considerable loss. In from two to six weeks after 
infection of the adult birds with a strain of the Bacterium Pul- 
lorum virulent for adult fowls the first symptoms appear. The 
bird has a loss of a]:)])etite, sluggish, appears droopy, feathers 
ruffled and unkemped appearance, the comb and wattles are 



176 POULTRY DISEASES 

pale, and more or less diarrhea is present. The bird may live 
for several days after the first symptoms appear and die in an 
emaciated condition. 

At autopsy there is found cloudy swelling and focal areas 
of necrosis of the liver, spleen and kidneys. The natural yolk 
color have changed from a dark brown to a greenish color. 
The ovary is shrunken, and on cut section the ova are of a 
tough cheesy consistency, with a reddish-yellow, or greenish 
tinge. Some of the ova appear as cysts with a darkened fluid 
content. 

Intradermal Test to Detect Bacteriuui PuUorum Infection. — To make 
the intradermal test a culture is made from several strains of the 
Bacterium Pullorum, from widely separated sources, grown in 
bouillon at a temperature of ?>7° C. for a period of thirty days to 
two months. The product is then sterilized in a water bath at a 
temperature of 60° C. for 60 minutes. To this product there is 
added 0.5 per cent carbolic acid as a preservative. This is then 
concentrated by evaporation to one-fifth its original volume. 0.2 
cc. or about three drops is injected into the wattle of the suspected 
bird. The injection is made with a hypodermic syringe graduated 
in tenths of a cubic centimeter. The needle must be very fine and 
the injection is made in the skin and at the lowest point of the 
wattle. The injected wattle should be checked twenty-four and 
again at 'the end of thirty-six hours for the reaction swelling. 

APOPLECTIFORM SEPTICAEMIA OF FOWLS AND 

PIGEONS 

Apoplectiform septicaemia is a highly infectious blood dis- 
ease of fowls and pigeons due to the Streptococcus gallinarum, 
which growls in the blood in long or short chains. The organ- 
ism is readily isolated from the liver, spleen or kidneys of a 
bird dead of the disease. It will grow upon ordinary labora^ 
tory media and does not liquefy gelatin. Experimental inocu- 
lations killed the following animals : chickens, mice, rabbits 
and swine. It does not kill guinea pigs or dogs. 

Symptoms. — Apoplectiform septicaemia is rapid in its 
course. The bird at first appears dull and depressed, there is 
a loss of appetite, ruffled feathers, stays apart from the bal- 
ance of the flock, does not respond when feeding time comes, 
there is a staggery gait, great prostration, at times diarrhea 
and death. The bird may die in from twelve to twenty-four 
hours after the first symptoms appear. Birds in which symp- 
toms have not been observed may be found dead under the 
roost in the morning. This disease is reported to have caused 
large losses to pigeon fanciers. 

Postmortem Findings. — The spleen is enlarged, dark and soft, 
cloudy swelling and focal areas of necrosis are noted in the kidneys, 
spleen, and liver. Pneumonia may be present. There may be 
hemorrhagic discoloration of the breast, and neck, due to diffused 
hemorrhages in the structures under the skin. The abdominal 



\ 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 177 

cavity may contain an abundance of sero-sanguinous fluid. A sero- 
sanguinous exudate may also be observed in the pericardium. The 
blood vessels of the mesentery are congested. The small intestines 
are congested in patches. The contents of the intestines is stained 
with blood and mucus. Upon opening the brain cavity there is 
observed profuse subdural exudation. The coverings of the brain 
are congested and the ventricles or brain cavities contain an ab- 
normal amount of discolored serum. 

Treatment. — Observe the same sanitary precautions as out- 
lined under Fowl Cholera which see. 

If possible, separate the well birds from the sick. Vaccina- 
tion with a vaccine made from the vStreptococcus gallinarum 
has given good results. A serum has been tried and is very 
efifective. 

SLEEPING DISEASE OF FOWLS 

Sleeping disease of fowls is a disease caused by an encapsu- 
lated streptococcus which lives and rapidly multiplies in the 
blood of the fowl and causing as the chief symptom sleepiness 
of the fowl. The disease has been described in Europe by 
the Germans and by the French. The organism is called the 
Streptoeoceits eapsulatus gallinaruni. It differs in length of 
the chains and in the size of the cocci making up the chains, 
according to the kind of animal in which it appears as a natural 
disease or into which it is inoculated. The streptococci are 
stained by the ordinary aniline stains. They are Gram posi- 
tive. It is very sensitive to drying and to heat. Bouillon cul- 
tures are killed at a temperature of 80° C, for five minutes. 
At 100° C. it is killed in one-half minute. One per cent car- 
bolic acid kills in two minutes and a similar solution of lysol, 
creolin and liquor cresoli saponatus, kills In three minutes. 

The period of incubation as given varies from six days to 
30 and even 70 days. The organism will kill fowls, pigeons, 
rabbits, mice and lambs. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom i.'^ the desire to 
sleep. The hen sits for hours at a time with eyes closed, feath- 
ers ruffled, and head bent backwards with beak buried in the 
feathers. Occasionally the fowl awakens and opens wide its 
beak as though pantins:. The mucous membrane of the eye 
may become congested and inflamed. Usually but one eye is 
affected. The comb and wattles become pale. Diarrhea oc- 
curs and the bird dies in an extremely emaciated condition. 
Birds may die suddenly after being sick for one or at most a 
few days. 

Postmortem Findings. — There is observed in the abdominal cavity 
a bloody, shiny, viscid fluid. The peritoneum is diffusely reddened 
and appears swollen. The mucous membrane of the small intes- 
tine is diffusedly red and swollen and this condition may extend, 



178 POULTRY DISEASES 

more or less, into the gizzard and proventriculus. The liver is 
brownish yellow in color, enlarged and easily torn. Dark-red 
hemorrhages may be seen over the surface. The spleen is enlarged, 
the capsule tense, and the splenic pulp tears easily. The kidneys 
are enlarged and of a dirty yellowish color. The lungs may be con- 
gested and edematous and studded with small, dark red hemor- 
rhages. The outer surface of the lung may be covered with a 
fibrinous exudate. The heart is distended with coagulated blood 
and small pin point hemorrhages may be noted on the outer surface 
of the heart. There may be covering the outer surface of the heart 
a thin layer of fibrinous exudate. Chains of streptococci may easilv 
be obtained from smears from these exudates or from the blood. 

EPIORNITHOLOGIC PNEUMO-PERICARDITIS 
IN TURKEYS 

Epiornitholoo'ic Pneumo-])ericarditis of turkeys is an infec- 
tious disease of turkeys affecting principally the lungs and the 
heart sac. The disease is infectious for turkeys alone as it 
does not produce disease of fowls, geese and pigeons. Rab- 
bits and guinea pigs when inoculated with pure cultures die of 
the disease. The germ causing the disease is a small ovoid rod 
closely resembling that causing fowl cholera. It is Gram nega- 
tive and stains readily with ordinary laboratory stains. It does 
not liquefy gelatin, or produce gas in sugar-agar shake cul- 
tures. It does not produce acid or coagulate milk. There is 
no visible growth on potato under either aerobic or anaerobic 
conditions. 

Syinptons. — The turkey is first noticed to be dull, an appar- 
ent stiffness of the mouth, and death in a few days. 

Postmortem Findings. — At autopsy there is observed a severe 
pericarditis, there may be extensive adhesions of the heart 
wall, and there may be a fibrinous exudate of a yellowish color. 
Pneumonia may be present and the lung may be completely 
hepatized. Degenerative changes are noted in the liver and 
kidneys. The liver may also appear pale in color and enlarged 
with fatty degeneration. The bipolar rod can easily be ob- 
tained from the blood or from any of the internal organs. 

INFECTIOUS ENTERITIS OF PHEASANTS 

Infectious enteritis of pheasants is a disease of pheasants 
caused by a short bacillus measuring 0.7 microns in diameter 
and 1 to 2 micra in length. In cultures the organism forms 
chains. On gelatin it produces a gray color and on potato, 
after 48 hours, the growth is of a yellow color, which later 
changes to a brown with the edges a rose brown. The culture 
has the appearance of honey. It attacks only pheasants, the 
males appearing the most susceptible. Inoculations of the cul- 
tures does not kill rabbits and guinea pigs. 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 179 

The disease is transmitted through contaminated food and 
water. 

Syniptoius. — The birds are at first depressed, do not appear 
as Hvely as usuah Later the gait is uncertain and there is a k^ss 
of appetite, diarrhea in which the bowel discharge is of a 
yellowish-green color, there is prostration, coma or uncon- 
sciousness and finally death. The sick bird dies in from five 
to eight days. 

Postmortem Findings. — The mucous membrane of the intestine is 
congested, is reddish brown and covered with a viscid croupous 
exudate. Small hemorrhages are found on the serous membranes. 
The liver is enlarged and tears easily. The spleen is enlarged. 

HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA OF THE DOVE 

Hemorrhagic septicaemia of the dove is a disease which has 
been described in the Ring Dove and is caused by an ovoid rod 
shaped bacillus which shows polar staining with fuchsin, and 
is Gram negative. It does not liquefy gelatin. Rabbits and 
guinea pigs die of septicaemia following inoculations of pure 
cultures of the organism. Fowls do not contract the disease. 
Doves and pigeons alone contract the disease. 

The symptoms as given are those of general septicaemias 

described above as occurring in other kinds of birds. 

The postmortem finding are those of a hemorrhagic inflamma- 
tion of the intestines. 

CHOLERA OF SWANS 

Cholera of swans and other waterfowls is due to germ, the 
Bacillus coscoroba. The organism is an ovoid, motile rod, 
showing polar staining, but does not stain with Gram's method. 
Milk is coagulated and indol is formed. The fowl does not 
contract the disease. 

Symptoms. — The bird remains in a sitting position, is dull, 
loss of appetite, diarrhea and emaciation followed by death. 

Postmortem Findings. — The lungs may show congestion. The liver 
is enlarged, dark in color, and may show small white spots. The 
spleen, in some cases, is slightly enlarged. 

Hemorrhagic Septicaemia of Szi'ans.— Under this heading 
there has been described a condition among swans accompanied 
by edematous infiltration of the lungs. The disease apparently 
affects, by preference, young swans and the aft'ected swan may 
die suddenly. There are small hemorrhages on the serous mem- 
branes. There is congestion of the intestines and a cloudy 
swelling of the liver and kidneys. Older birds may live sev- 
eral days. The lungs of the older birds show pneumonia often 
in the stage of gray hepatization. The liver of the older birds 
is congested, there is a thickening of the liver capsule, and at 



180 POULTRY DISEASES 

times a fatty degeneration as well as cloudy swelling. There 
may be small hemorrhages on the serous membranes, and a 
congestion of the intestines. The organism is easily recovered 
from the blood of the dead bird and from the internal organs 
as the liver, spleen and kidneys. 

The shape of the organism is similar to that of fowl cholera 
but larger. It stains by Gram's method, and is motile. The 
organism may be four micra long. On potato it produces a 
brown color, with offensive odor. 

SEPTICAEMIA OF PARROTS 

Under this name there has been described a disease called 
by various names such as Psittacosis of Parrots and Parrot 
Septicaemia. It is due to a germ belonging to the hog cholera 
group. It is motile, Gram negative, and grows well either 
in the presence or absence of oxygen. It is rod shaped and 
does not liquefy gelatin. Its growth on gelatin is at first shiny, 
transparent, iridescent, later a porcelain white. The organism 
is readily isolated from the bone marrow, blood, spleen and 
other organs. The disease is spread through contaminated 
food or water. The discharges from the parrot contain the 
germs. 

Among the causes predisposing to this disease are crowding, 
filthy cages, climatic conditions, and general hardships during 
shipping as it appears to be more common in parrots brought 
from the tropics and shortly after their arrival. 

Symptoms. — The first signs of the disease are those of 
shivering, loss of appetite and a diarrhea, the droppings being 
of a frothy greenish appearance. There is great thirst, dull- 
ness, the sick bird sits in one position, eyes closed much of the 
time, feathers ruffled, and head turned on the shoulder. 
Emaciation ensues, convulsions and death. The sick bird 
usually dies in from eight to nine days. The period of incuba- 
tion as given is from three to five days. 

Postmortem Findings. — The intestines are congested and there is 
present small hemorrhages. The spleen is enlarged and soft in 
texture. The liver and kidneys may show small grayish spots. 
The muscles may show a spotted appearance. The heart muscle 
may be dark and hemorrhagic. Small hemorrhages may be found 
on the lining of the heart and also on the covering of the same 
organ. Pneumonia may be present and the air sacs may contain a 
fibrinous exudate. 

SEPTICAEMIAS OF PIGEONS 

An outbreak among pigeons has been described as due to an 
organism closely related to that of the Bacillus suipestifer. 
Symptoms. — The disease has been popularly called megrims 




DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 181 

and is characterized by spells of aimlessly flying around, and a 

peculiar turning of the head to one side. There is emaciation 

and finally death. 

Postmortem Findings. — No visible lesions of disease is observed. 
There may be an exudate of a grayish yellow color in the brain 
cavity. The organisms may be obtained in pure culture from the 
brain lesions. The germs may also be obtained from the blood and 
from the liver of a bird dead of the disease. 

Infection of the Pigeon due to Bacillus Paratyphosis B. — 
An infection of pigeons v^ath the organism, the Bacillus para- 
typhosis B. has been described. The organism was isolated 
from the blood and from the muscular structures. Experi- 
mental inoculations of mice proved fatal. 

The birds became emaciated, and the liver may be yellowish- 
gray in color, and covered by hyperemic areas. In other cases 
there was observed yellow, round, compact knots varying in 
size from a grain of wheat to a bean, which gives the surface 
a roughened appearance. Hemorrhages may appear in the 
intestines. The greatest degenerative changes are in the kid- 
neys. A study under the microscope shows a parenchymatous 
nephritis. Cloudy swelling and focal areas of necrosis may 
appear in the liver. 

GROUSE AND QUAIL DISEASES 

Several workers have reported outbreaks of disease among 
fowls and other birds due to the colon bacillus. 

Under the heading of grouse disease there has been de- 
scribed a pneumonia caused by an organism belonging to the 
B. coli group. 

Under the heading of quail disease there has been described 
a condition due to a germ belonging to the colon group. The 
disease affects the lungs causing congestion, cloudy swelling 
with focal necrosis of the liver, and ulcerations of the intes- 
tines. The disease has been called Colobacillosis tetraoni- 
darum. The disease has especially appeared among those 
birds shipped for stocking purposes, the disease appearing 
during the transportation period or immediately afterwards. 
When inoculations of the organism, in pure cultures, are made 
it has been shown that the disease is not fatal to fowls, pigeons 
or rabbits, but kills guinea pigs and mice. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms shown by the bird is that 
of dullness, loss of appetite, ruffled feathers, emaciation, and 
death in from two or three days to several days. 

FOWL PEST 

Fowl pest is an acute infectious disease of fowls that at- 
tacks chickens, geese, turkeys, pheasants, sparrows, parrots, 



182 POULTRY DISEASES 

pigeons and owls. The infective agent is contained in the 
blood, discharges from the nose and in the droppings. It may 
also be recovered from the nervous system. 

Fowls become infected through contaminated food and 
water. The disease has been transmitted experimentally to 
chickens by inoculation of emulsions from these sources from 
infected fowls. These emulsions were filtered through por- 
celain filters and the liquid passing through the filter was in- 
jected into a chicken and produced the disease. The disease 
is therefore produced by a filterable virus, that is, a germ too 
small to be seen under a microscope or to be grown in visible 
quantities upon artificial media. The blood cells are said to 
be more virulent than the blood serum alone. 

The virus kept sealed in glass tubes retains its virulency or 
power to produce disease for at least three months. 65° C. 
kills the virus at once and 55° C. for thirty minutes kills it. 
Exposure to direct sunlight kills it. The virus remained active 
in dried liver and spinal cord for 200 days, and in blood mixed 
with glycerine 270 days. Drying in thin layers kills it. It is 
destroyed with five per cent creolin, three per cent chlorate of 
lime, and one per cent corrosive sublimate. Wounds inocu- 
lated with the virus proved fatal. 

The disease is spread by contaminations from the droppings 
and the nasal discharges. The feet of man and animals and of 
wild birds as sparrows, utensils and clothing coming m con- 
tact with the contagion may transmit the disease. Birds intro- 
duced into the flock or placed in infected runs or houses may 
serve as a source of infection. Mascerated parasites removed 
from the skin of sick birds and this injected into susceptible 
birds did not produce the disease. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is from three to five 
days. The bird first appears depressed with loss of appetite ; 
later dull and sleepy. The comb and wattles appear dark red 
and the bird sits with droopy wings, and gives a peculiar loud 
cry when picked up. The walk is irregular and staggery. 
Toward the end of the disease grayish scales sometimes de- 
velop on the skin, especially on the face and around the eyes. 
The nasal discharge is of a reddish gray color and rather 
viscid in consistency. Similar secretions are noted in the 
mouth and throat. The bird if distressed by obstruction from 
mucous accumulation may throw its head causing a discharge 
of a quantity of the secretion. The droppings are gray or 
greenish in color and occasionally diarrhea accompanies the 
disease. The disease runs a rapid course and is fatal in the 
majority of the cases in from two to three days, the more 
chronic cases may live seven days. The time of death and 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 183 

rapidity of the course of the disease depends upon the resist- 
ance of the hird and the virulency of the organism. The tem- 
perature may run from 110° to 112° Fahr. A diphtheric type 
has been observed in which fibrinous exudate occurs in the 
nasal, mouth and pharyngeal or throat regions. Inflammation 
of the eyes may occur. 

Postmortem Findings.-— In very acute cases lesions may be absent 
or only slightly marked. There may be hemorrhages in the serous 
lining of the abdominal cavity and over the intestines, gizzard, and 
provcntriculus. Hemorrhages may be observed in the heart sac, 
and in the mucous membrane of the trachea, larynx, and pharynx. 
The kidneys are swollen and the cut surface appears grayish in 
color indicating cloudy swelling. The kidneys are congested. 
There is also congestion of the liver and spleen. In less acute 
cases there may be edematous swellings of the neck and breast. 
The heart sac may contain a quantity of pale yellow, slightly 
cloudy fluid. Fibrinous exudate has been noted in the pericardium 
and peritoneum. There is a catarrhal swelling of the mucous 
membrane of the eye, conjunctivitis. The mouth and nasal pas- 
sages contain a quantity of mucous. The lungs may be congested. 
The intestines may be congested or there may be inflammation. 

Treatment. — Steps should be taken as in other contagious 
diseases before mentioned. It has been shown that blood of a 
goose that has recovered as well as hyperimmunized goose 
blood has curative efifects. Immunity to the disease has been 
conferred upon chickens by intravenous inoculation of heated 
virulent blood. Chickens thus hyperimmunized furnished an 
active microbian serum which protected the birds against the 
virus injected 24 hours later. By mixing the virulent serum 
with washed globules of rabbit blood the alexin of the serum 
was destroyed. A mixture of this virus with the serum of 
the hyperimmunized fowl, heated to 56° C, was capable of 
conferring immunity when injected into pigeons. 

SEPTICAEMIAS OF CANARY BIRDS 

Infectious Necrosis of Canaries 

This disease is also called bird fever, bird plague and Septic 
fever. This disease is due to a non-motile bacillus which take 
the polar staining and is Gram negative. The culture produces 
an ofifensive gas, and on potato the growth is of a brownish 
color. 

Symptoms. — The bird appears droopy with loss of appetite. 
Singing birds cease to sing and sit upon the perch pole much 
of the time. Death usually occurs in 24 to 36 hours. Upon 
opening the mouth there may be observed diphtheritic areas 
covered with the diphtheritic membrane. 

Postmortem Findings. — Small necrotic areas are noted in the liver 
and spleen. These dead areas are of a yellowish color. The liver 
and spleen are enlarged. The spleen tears easily. The mucous 



184 POULTRY DISEASES 

membrane of the pharynx contains yellowish nodules. The surface 
of the lungs are covered with a yellowish exudate, and the lungs 
may be congested and even areas of disease. Inflammation of the 
intestines may also occur. The necrotic lesions somewhat resemble 
those of tuberculosis of the fowl. A microscopic examination of 
these small lesions show them to be made up of necrotic or dead 
tissue with masses of the bacteria. 

General sanitation as observed in other contagious diseases is 
recommended. 

SEPTICAEMIA OF CANARY BIRDS 

This is an infectious disease due to a small rod shaped 
bacillus. Gram positive, and non-motile. It liquefies gelatin in 
about 48 hours, and on potato, at first grayish-white, later it 
becomes yellowish and even brownish-yellow. 

Experimentally it kills hens, pigeons, rabbits and guinea 
])igs. Sparrows and mice are susceptible and may carry the 
disease. 

Symptoms. — The bird is first noted to have ruflfled feathers, 
sits much of the time, not active, peeps occasionally giving signs 
of difificulty of breathing. The appetite remains the same but 
the bird sufifers from thirst. The disease is rapid in its course 
and usually dies in about two days after the first symptoms 
appear. 

Posimortem Findings. — The mucous lining of the first part of the 
intestine is swollen and diffusely red. The liver is congested, yel- 
lowish in color, and tears easily. The spleen may be swollen. 

Similar treatment is suggested as in other infectious diseases. 

CHOLERA OF CANARY BIRDS 

Cholera of canary birds is due to a non-motile bacillus that 
does not take the polar staining. In cultures it produces an 
offensive gas. On potato it produces yellowish colonies. 

Symptoms. — The bird shows great weakness, rufifled feath- 
ers, diarrhea, loss of appetite and sits on the perch much of 
the time. The disease runs a rapid course. 

Chickens and pigeons inoculated with pure cultures die. 

TYPHOID OF CANARY BIRDS 
(Septic Fever of Cage Birds) 

Septic fever of cage birds is due to the B. paratyphosis B. 
The organism is short and plump with rounded ends. It is 
actively motile and Gram negative. Inoculations with pure 
cultures kill canary birds, mice, guinea pigs and rabbits. 

Symptoms. — At first the bird is noted to be dull and sits on 
the perch with ruffled feathers. Later the wins^s droop, there 
is difficult breathing, debility and diarrhea. There is a loss 
of appetite and the eyes are closed much of the time while 
sitting on the perch. The breathing may be as high as 150 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 185 

times a minute. The bird may peep hoarsely. The course is 
very rapid and the bird usually dies. 

Postmortem Findings. — When examined after death there is ob- 
served an acute gastro-intestinal catarrh, and a fibrinous inflamma- 
tion of the serous membranes of the abdominal cavity. There is 
cloudy swelling of the liver and kidneys. The spleen is enlarged, 
at times, five times its normal size. There is congestion with en- 
largement of the liver and kidneys. Smears from the heart blood 
show great numbers of short, thick, rods in pure culture. 

Treatment. — Place in the drinking water of the sick bird 5 
grains sulphate of iron per pint of v^^ater. Separate sick birds 
from well ones. Disinfect the cages in which the birds sick 
of the disease have been kept. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE JOINTS OF GEESE AND DUCKS 

(Osteo-Arthritis) 

Inflammation of the joints of geese and ducks may be caused 
by the common pus producing germ the Staphylococcus 
pyogenes aureus. The organisms are observed in large num- 
bers in the pus of the affected joints. The affection consists 
of a serous or sero-firinous inflammation or arthritis. Hem- 
orrhagic inflammation of the bone marrow may be present. 
There may accompany this disease an intestinal catarrh. 

Symptoms. — Young geese and ducks are susceptible. As 
many as 90 per cent of the flock may become affected. The 
disease manifests itself in two forms, either an acute attack 
with rapidly fatal results, or a chronic form terminating in 
death or recovery after a long time. 

In the acute type the young geese and ducks have a loss of 
appetite, are dull and lame in one or both legs. The joints of 
the leg are swollen, hot, painful and fluctuating. Usually only 
a few joints are affected and attacks by preference the hock, 
toes and wing joints. The affected wing droops. There may 
be a slight mucous catarrh of the conjunctiva. Birds with 
acute symptoms die in from two to four days. 

In the chronic form the inflammation of the joints is the 
most prominent symptom. There is slight diarrhea and a par- 
tial loss of appetite. Emaciation follows. The bird may die in 
about fourteen days or the bird may improve and gradually 
recover. Painless swellings of the joints may last for several 
weeks. Growing birds are stunted in their growth and are not 
suitable for fattening. 

Treatment. — Local coimter irritants as pure iodine may be 
tried or two drams of powdered cantharades rubbed in one 
ounce of lard or vaseline and applied twice with an interval of 
ten days. Follow the blister in twenty-four hours with pure 



186 



POULTRY DISEASES 



lard. Disinfection of the premises as described under fowl 
cliolera is indicated. 

SPIROCHETOSIS 

This is a blood disease or septicaemia of fowls due to a 
spiral-like miscroscopic organism that is carried from bird to 



y^'TT' 



:?^''^-^^^^ 







Fig. 68. Spirocheta Gallinarum. 
This drawing made from a blood smear shows 
xed blood cells, oval with oval nuclei; throm- 
bocytes and leucocytes, round; and the cork- 
screw-like spirochetes. 

bird by the chicken tick illustrated in Fig. 38. Fig. 68 shows a 
drawing of the germ among the blood cells. It is the Spiro- 
cheta gaUinariim; the slide from which this drawing was 
made was kindly sent to the author by Dr. Bel four, of Kliar- 




FiG. 69. A Fowl With Acute Spirochetosis. 
Photograph by Belfour. 

toum, Soudan, Africa. This organism may infect chickens, 
geese, larks and other birds. 

The disease was first recognized in Brazil : it is found in 
Africa and Europe. A disease occurs in the southern part of 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 187 

the United States, where the chicken tick is abundant, that 
])resents symptoms similar to those of spirochetosis ; so far as 
the author knows, no definite work has been done to determine 
the true cause of it. 

Spirochetosis is most common among chickens, but it also 
infects geese, ducks, pigeons and sparrows. 

Symptoms. — The onset of the disease may be so sudden that 
birds apparently healthy at night are found dead under the 
perch pole in the morning. There is noted dullness, ruffled 
feathers, loss of appetite, rapid emaciation, stands in corner or 
on roost with head and tail down, diarrhea, comb pale, coma 
and death. Fig. 69 shows a photograph of a fowl with typical 
symptoms. 

Another form of septicaemia in chickens is caused by a 
comma-shaped germ — the Spinllum Metchnikovii or Vibrio 
Mctchnikovii. 

The symptoms are similar to those of fowl cholera, except 
that there is no, or at most but slight, elevation of temperature. 
Diarrhea is constantly present. Inflammation of the bowel, 
enlarged liver and spleen. The liver shows fatty degeneration, 
cloudy swelling and areas of focal necrosis. In chronic cases 
the liver and spleen may be smaller than normal. 

INFECTIOUS CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 
Tuberculosis 

This is a disease of great importance to the poultryman, not 
only on account of its destructfulness to his flock, but also on 
account of its relation to the health of himself and family; for 
while fowls are not very likely to contract tuberculosis from 
domestic animals or from man, yet fowls that have the disease 
are a serious menace to the other animals on the farm as well 
as to the poultryman and his family. 

Cause. — The Bacillus tuberculosis, which was discovered by Koch 
in 1882, is the cause of this disease. There are four principal types 
of this organism. The one most commonly infecting man is desig- 
nated as the human type. The one peculiar to cattle is designated 
as the bovine type and this is the type most often affecting hogs. 
The one peculiar to fowls is designated as the avian type. There 
is still another variety which affects fish and other cold blooded 
animals and this has been designated the picean type. 

While there are some differences in the shape of the organism 
grown for a considerable time in the various animals and some 
differences, biochemically, when grown in artificial media after 
isolation, yet the type peculiar to any of the warm blooded animals 
will grow in any of the other warm blooded animals, that is, the 
types are interchangeable, which means that the bovine type may 
cause tuberculosis in man and the human type may cause tuber- 
culosis in birds, etc. Most authors consider that while the chicken 
has considerable resistance to the human type, it will and does be- 



J88 



POULTRY DISEASES 



come infected by this type. The avian type is more easily isolated 
from the disease tissues and grown on artificial media. The avian 
bacillus is somewhat shorter and stains more evenly than those of 
the mammalian type. The guinea pig is very susceptible to the 
mammalian types but inoculations with the avian type may result 
in emaciation with no visible lesions, or in slight lesions with a 
non-progressive character. 

It has been found that a large percentage of hogs fed swill from 
houses where tuberculous persons have expectorated into it, be- 
come tuberculous, and when slaughtered, there is a considerable 
loss from condemnation of those badly affected (Busman). 

Tuberculosis among chickens is rare in some portions of the 



\ . 



ik»^ 




Fig. 70. Tuberculosis of a Fowl. 
1, tubercles of the duodenal loop; 2, of the pancreas; 3, of the free portion of 
the small intestine; 4, of the mesentery; 5, of the gizzard. 



United States, and is very common in others. Although it is wide- 
spread throughout the United States and Canada, it was first re- 
ported in this country in 1900 and received but slight attention 
until 1903. Tuberculosis also occurs in turkeys, pigeons, and 
pheasants, and two cases of wild geese were reported at the On- 
tario Agricultural College. 

From an economic standpoint it may be said that the loss from 
this disease is on the increase. The disease being of a slow going 
chronic type of a disease contributes to the unconcern of the 
owner of the infected flock. Deaths will not occur till the flock 
has extensively infected and when they occur, are so scattered in 
point of time that they do not cause the same concern on the part 
of the owner as would be occasioned by the same number occurring 
in a short time. It is not till the bird is in advanced stages and 
the disease is quite generalised or extensive that the bird dies. It 
usually dies in a state of emaciation. 

Tuberculosis has been produced in sparrows experimentally in 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 189 

one test 12 sparrows were fed chopped tuberculosis hen liver mixed 
with feed and all contracted the disease. 

Mode of Spread. — In the progress of tuberculosis of chickens, at 
times, there is noted a diarrhea. In these cases there are tuber- 
culous ulcers of the mucous lining of the intestinal tract and the 
spread is very rapid through the flock, as birds are continually 
picking feed from the ground and floors where contamination is 
sure to have taken place. 

If scraps be fed to which tuberculous sputum has found its way 
or if birds are allowed to devour parts of an animal dead of the 
disease, there is a liability of their contracting tuberculosis. 

They may also contract the disease by the introduction of a 
tuberculous bird into a flock. Tuberculosis among wild birds ha.s 
been mentioned as a possible fact, and has been known in wild 
birds in captivity. There is also danger of spread of the disease 
from eggs from a tuberculous hen where the eggs are purchased 
for hatching — prenatal infection. 

There is also a possibility that birds, by following tuberculous 
cattle, may become infected, as do hogs. It has been argued that 
the temperature of the bird is so high, 106° to 108° F. with an aver- 
age of 107° F., that it furnished an unfavorable field for the human 
and bovine types of germs, which thrive at temperatures close to 
98° to 101° F. though hogs carry a temperature between this and 
the temperature of fowls. It has, however, been observed that 
these germs soon adjust themselves to such changes in tempera- 
ture and to a certain degree to differences in food. 

One case, a hen, was sent to the laboratory with the history of 
having had access to the sputum of a person afflicted with tuber- 
culosis. Upon autopsy small pearl-like bodies were observed 
throughout the liver, in the lung substance, and over the serous 
lining covering the intestines and abdominal cavity. A micro- 
scopic examination of the lesions revealed the bacillus of tuber- 
culosis. It more closely resembled the human than the avian type. 

Symptoms. — There are no well marked initial symptoms or 
signs of the disease. As the disease progresses it makes itself 
manifest by general symptoms such as a loss of weight with 
gradual emaciation, the bird becomes weak and moves about 
very little, the disinclination to move about may be due to gen- 
eral weakness or to an afifection of the joint by tuberculosis. 
The eyes appear bright and the appetite remains good. The 
skin and visible mucous membranes are pale, and the feathers 
appear ruffled. From these general symptoms it is impossible 
to make a positive diagnosis during life. The symptoms ob- 
servable are common to many diseases, especially in the more 
early stages when there are no positive external symptoms by 
which it may be recognized. The comb becomes pale and the 
bird appears sleepy and remains apart from the balance of the 
flock. If the joints become affected there will be lameness, in 
case the affection is in the legs, the swollen joints, and often 
in affection of the skin and visible mucous membranes there 
is ulcerations or sores. This latter condition has been ob- 
served especially in parrots. These skin lesions are made up 



190 POULTRY DISEASES 

of a cheesy material, a caseation necrosis, which is covered 
by a thick, rather hard crust, whitish in color. At times these 
crusts become rather horny in nature. 

The red blood cells in tuberculosis of fowls may be greatly 
reduced, as low as 1,000,000, and the hemaglobin as low as 
thirty-five per cent. The white blood cells are slightly in- 
creased in numbers. 

Tuberculin Test. — Both subcutaneous and eye tests on birds with 
tuberculin, made from avian and from mammalian cultures of the 
tubercle bacilli, have been without success. Intradermal tests of 
tuberculin made from the avian type of tubercle bacillus has proven 
satisfactory. Only one to three drops are injected into the skin 
in the wattles with a very fine needle. A doughy swelling will be 
noted in 36 to 72 hours after injection if tuberculosis is present in 
the bird. Of 600 tests 97.77 per cent were accurate. 

Postmortem Findings. — Owing to the fact that most birds are 
infected with tuberculosis through contaminated food, we find most 
of the lesions in the abdominal organs. Of these the liver is the 
most often diseased. Next in frequency may be named the spleen, 
peritoneum or lining of the abdominal cavity, ovaries, gizzard, 
intestines, lungs, kidneys, and bones. 

As indicated above, the areas may appear as pearly, grayish- 
white nodules varying in size from a pin head to a pea, or even 
larger. In these larger nodules there will be noted a cheesy mass 
which, as the lesions become older, seldom if ever become impreg- 
nated with lime salts so that the tubercular lesions of fowls do not 
cut "gritty" as in mammals. Usually the diseased organs are en- 
larged. 

Upon opening the intestines of a tuberculous bird there may be 
noted ulcers, usually small in size, and a thickening of the intestinal 
wall. Small tubercles may be observed in the lung tissue and ad- 
jacent structures. 

Like in mammals, the bones may become tuberculous, there is 
noted swelling, tubercles, and caseation. 

Treatment. — Treatment of the affected bird is not to be 
thought of. As shown above, the germs of the disease are so 
often spread through the droppings that the only sure means 
of eradicating the disease from a flock is to kill all the birds 
in the flock and if possible move the hen house to a new loca- 
tion and provide new runs. The hen house should be thor- 
oughly disinfected, in fact, it would be better to use for some 
other purpose and build a new house. The building may be 
disinfected with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid or the 
same per cent of a standardized coal tar disinfectant dip. 

The tubercle bacillus is resistant to external influences. A 
contaminated poultry yard may remain infected for a long 
time, many months and possibly years. The action of disin- 
fectants on the tubercle bacillus is slow. Direct sunlight on 
the surface of infected material kills the bacillus in a few 
hours. 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 191 

Birds from an infected flock should not be sold for breeders, 
and the birds from such a flock that are killed for food should 
be inspected by a competent veterinarian, so that none may 
be used for food purposes that are diseased to such an extent 
as to render the food imfit for use. 

All birds in a flock infected with tuberculosis that die should 
be burned to prevent further spread of the disease from that 
source. All droppings and cleanings from the hen house and 
runs should be disinfected with calcium chloride, a five per 
cent solution of carbolic acid or other reliable disinfectant 
before spreading on the fields. 

INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS IN BIRDS WITH 
MAMMALIAN STRAINS 

Auclair observed that pigeons injected intraperitoneally with 
pure cultures of human tubercle bacilli, died after one to three and 
a half months, without showing any signs of tuberculous lesions. 
In a second series, pigeons were infected in a similar manner with 
tubercle bacilli from a similar source. At the sixth, seventh, and 
fourteenth days afterward, the pigeons were killed and the livers, 
lungs, and blood were injected into guinea pigs. A few of the pigs 
died without any evidence of tuberculosis. Only two died of local 
tuberculosis. 

From this Auclair concludes: First, that pigeons infected with 
human tubercle bacilli die without any observable tuberculous 
changes; second, that tubercle bacilli may retain their vitality and 
virulence in the body of the pigeon, for at least fourteen days; 
third, that the tubercle bacilli localize themselves in the pigeon by 
preference in the liver and in the lungs, but not, so far as could be 
shown, in the blood; and fourth, that the tubercle bacilli passed 
through the pigeon gave rise to a slowly developing tuberculosis. 

Van Es and Schalk after experimenting with many chickens 
came to the following conclusions: 

A considerable number of birds into which mammalian tubercle 
bacilli are introduced, either by ingestion or by inoculation, die in 
an extremely emaciated state. 

As a result of the incorporation of such bacilli into the bodies of 
birds, the latter may retain the organisms for a long period of 
time with their pathogenic characteristics preserved. 

In consequence it is well within the range of possibilities that 
birds may serve as intermediary carriers and transmitters of mam- 
malian tuberculosis. 

PSEUDO (FALSE) TUBERCULOSIS 

Pseudo or false tubercidosis manifests symptoms similar to 
true tuberculosis. Upon autopsy the lungs may be noted to be 
thoroughly studded with nodules varying in size up to that of 
a pea. The nodules are firm to the touch and when sectioned 
are found to be dense and appear homogeneous. 

The lesions may be mistaken for tuberculosis, parasitic 
cysts, nodular tape worm disease, aspergillosis or coccidiosis. 



192 POULTRY DISEASES 

ASPERGILLOSIS 
(Pneumomycosis or Brooder Disease) 

Aspergillosis is a pneumonia caused by a fungus, the Asper- 
gillus fuinigatus. The organism is similar to the common 
green mold. The disease is characterised by the formation of 
an exudate, usually of a moldy appearance, on the mucous 
membrane of the air passages, principally the air sacs of the 
abdominal cavity. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms or signs of the disease vary in 
different cases. Like in tuberculosis, evidence of the disease is 
not manifested by symptoms, till it has progressed to a consid- 
erable extent. The affection of the air sacs does not cause visi- 
ble symptoms. As the disease progresses the bird becomes dull, 
sluggish, staying apart from the balance of the flock, may 
sit on the perch poles much of the time, or stand in a corner. 
Later the bird is very weak and is finally unable to stand. 
There is a loss of appetite, the feathers have an unkemped 
appearance, the wings are drooping, and the eyes partially 
closed. The respiration is accelerated and there is a rattling 
of mucus in the trachea and bronchi. Fever is present, and 
there is usually thirst. The affected bird dies after a pro- 
longed illness. 

All species of birds are apparently susceptible to infection. 
Predisposing causes appear to be those birds kept under con- 
ditions in which they are exposed to moldy organic matter. 
These include especially chickens and pigeons as well as young 
brooder chicks and cage birds, especially those of zoological 
gardens are especially susceptible. The disease has been ob- 
served in the ostrich. 

Postmortem Findings. — The disease is principally confined to the 
respiratory system which includes the trachea, bronchi, lungs, and 
their air sacs. Mold may develop at any point on the surface of 
the respiratory mucous membrane. The membrane affected is 
thicker and whitish or yellow nodules, varying in size up to a pea, 
may be noted in the affected parts; which may be the trachea, 
bronchi, lungs, and the various air sacs. The fungus may grow 
upon the surface of the mucous membrane forming, at first, a 
feU-hke, whitish mass which takes on color according to the species 
of the fungus as it fruits or forms spores. This membraneous ma- 
terial, to the naked eye, resembles a fribopurulent exudate. The 
obstruction of the air sacs causes the difficult breathing and as- 
phyxiation. 

Inflammation is evident in the diseased areas. Sections through 
these areas of disease show the mycelia or thread-hke branches of 
the mold, and the characteristic spores. Focal necrosis, preceded 
by cloudy swelling, is noted in the kidneys and other vital organs. 
A secondary invasion of pus producing organisms may take place 
and on autopsy abscesses may be observed in the liver, kidneys, 



DISEASES DUE TO BACTERIA 193 

spleen, and other organs. The bronchioes may be completely 
plugged with the myceHa. 

Treatment. — Successful treatment is very difficult. Place 
the affected bird in a closed box and smoke them with tar be- 
ing careful not to suffocate them. Efforts should be made to 
eradicate the disease from the premises by thorough cleaning 
and disinfection as described for other contagious diseases as 
fowl cholera. 



CHAPTER VII 

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 

Under the head of constitutional diseases there will be dis- 
cussed a condition or disease little understood and called ''go- 
ing light" or asthenia, and gout of fowls. 

There is much doubt if the condition called asthenia should 
be classed as a disease; certainly this term as usually applied 
refers merely to a symptom of a disease, often tuberculosis 
or enteritis, or a condition in which there is a progressive loss 
in the weight of the bird. 

ASTHENIA 
(Going Light) 

Those who look upon going light as a specific disease con- 
sider it as one that affects chickens and pigeons. It may affect 
young or old birds. It is called going light because the bird 
becomes gradually lighter until emaciated. It is a disease that 
is found in all parts of the United States. A germ called the 
Bacterium asthenia has been isolated by one investigator from 
the intestines of sick birds. It resembles the Bacillus coli 
communis always present in the intestinal tract of chickens. 

The affected birds have a good appetite ; in fact, at times a 
ravenous one. The loss of flesh is continuous for a few weeks, 
when the bird dies. 

In eleven cases of going light examined by the Pathological 
laboratory of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry 
three were found to be infected by the Bacillus enteritidis. 
This germ is dangerous to man. It affects cattle and has re- 
sulted fatally to those persons eating infected meat. 

Postmortem Findings. — Usually on autopsy all organs appear nor- 
mal so far as gross appearance goes, but extreme emaciation as 
described above is noted. 

Blood Study. — Two outbreaks were investigated by the author. 
One in a flock of Rhode Island Reds, in which flock there were 
about two hundred birds which should have weighed about two 
pounds each. The disease affected gradually increasing numbers. 
The feed consisted of grain, insects picked up from the fields, and 
plenty of green grass. As it was irrigation time, the birds had 
access to the irrigation ditches. The hen house and yard were kept 
clean. It was advised to change the run and continue giving a 
variety of good green feed and grain with a good supply of water. 
The disease finally disappeared from the flock. All efforts at the 
laboratory to isolate any germ which might have been the cause 
of the disease were unsuccessful. 

The second flock were hatched from eggs that had been produced 



196 POULTRY DISEASES 

by birds in which roup had appeared the preceding winter. Five 
birds about four months old, with the following history, were sent 
to the laboratory for study: The birds had good hygienic sur- 
roundings, were moved from place to place, fresh water kept be- 
fore them at all times, good quality of feed, plenty of green feed, 
under which conditions the birds continued to lose flesh, became 
emaciated and many died. The appetite remained normal, in fact 
in some, ravenous. 

Chick No. 3. — Hemoglobin, 65 per cent ; red blood cells, 2,920,000 ; 
white blood cells, 28,000. Differential count: polymorphonuclear 
neutrophiles, 39 per cent; eosinophils, 30 per cent; lymphocytes, 
29 per cent; mast cells, 2 per cent. 

Chick No. 4. — Hemoglobin, 65 per cent ; red blood cells, 2,600,000 ; 
white blood cells, 14,000. Differential count: eosiniphiles, 31 per 
cent; mononuclears, 8 per cent; lymphocytes, 60 per cent; baso- 
philes, 1 per cent. 

Chick No. 5. — Hemaglobin, 7S per cent; white blood cells, 34,000; 
red blood cells, 3,000,000. Differential count: polymorphonuclear 
neutrophiles, 4 per cent; eosinophiles, 50 per cent; basophiles, 3 per 
cent; mononuclears, 4 per cent; lymphocytes, 39 per cent. 

Chick No. 6. — This bird was about four months old, stunted in 
growth, "going light," and had contracted roup from another bird. 
The blood study showed the following: hemaglobin, 60 per cent; 
white blood cells, 16,000; red blood cells. 3,600,000; thrombocytes, 
436,000. Differential count: eosinophiles, 3 per cent; mononuclears, 
4 per cent; lymphocytes, 89 per cent; mast cells, 4 per cent. 

All efforts to isolate germs from the liver, spleen, kidneys, and 
heart blood were unsuccessful. 

Treatment. — Best results, in flocks of young birds, have 
been obtained by changing their runs to pasture runs, and 
giving one tablespoonful of epsom salts to each 12 birds. Dis- 
solve the epsom salts m water and give as drinking water or 
mix with mash. Repeat twice weekly. The flock must have 
ample shade as hot sun's rays with a shortage of water favors 
such conditions. Water must be kept before the birds at all 
times as more than 65 per cent of the flesh is water. 

The birds should receive one-fourth grain doses of ferrous 
sulphate once a day in soft feed. The prognosis or final re- 
sults is not very encouraging. 

With our present knowledge we look to sanitary surround- 
ings for the control of this condition, clean coops and yard, 
good feed, water. A tablespoonful of powdered nux vomica 
to each dozen hens may be given with advantage once or twice 
a day in soft feed. 

In going light in addition to a cathartic of epsom salts the 
following given once a day in mash has yielded good results: 
calcium carbonate, 120 grains; magnesium sulphate, 240 
grains ; sodium bicarbonate, 360 grains ; sodium chloride, 60 
grains ; sodium sulphate, 120 grains. This is a dose for 120 
birds. 



CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 197 

GOUT OF FOWLS 

Gout of the joints is an inflammation of the fibrous and 
ligamentous parts of the joints. It is accompanied by an excess 
of uric acid and deposits of urates of sodium in and around 
the joints. 

Gout may also attack the internal organs and cause deposits 
of sodiiun urates in them. This type is called visceral gout. 

Gout attacks man and some of the lower animals such as 
fowls and dogs. 

The histology of urate deposits, both experimental and 
gouty, have been studied. These results all indicate that uric 
acid and urates excite slight inflammatory reactions, cause a 
slight local necrosis, and seem to act as a week tissue poison. 
However, they may be deposited without causing necrosis. 

That urates may cause necrosis in the tissues has been 
definitely established, and this may lead to connective tissue 
formation and contraction. 

Gout is more common in birds force-fed and given rich 
nitrogenous diet and in old birds where the eliminating action 
of the kidneys is more or less impaired. Birds normally ex- 
crete large quantities of uric acid, which appears on the outer 
surface of the droppings as a whitish liquid or semisolid. 

It would appear that the preponderance in the blood of sub- 
stances which are of acid reaction favors the precipitation of 
uric acid. 

Uric acid is converted into sodium urate by the salts in 
the blood in two ways : First, by breaking down of the nucleo- 
albumins of the tissue and especially perhaps of those con- 
tained within the leucocytes; and second, from similar sub- 
stances contained in the food. 

Excess of uric salts in the blood may be produced either by 
increased formation of the substances or by diminished excre- 
tion of them or by failure to utilize and destroy them in the 
metabolic processes in the tissues. 

Typical gout has been produced in fowls by feeding them 
for several months exclusively on horse flesh. Gout is caued 
by chronic poisoning by oxalic acid, carbolic acid, corrosive 
sublimate, aloin and acetone. 

If the ureters of the bird be ligated, gout may occur; hence, 
it is argued that perverted function of the kidneys or ureters 
may be a contributing factor in the production of gout. Lack 
of exercise predisposes to gouty conditions. 

In visceral gout the chalky or mortar-like deposits may be 
observed in the air sacs, pericardium, peritoneum, heart or 
liver. 



198 



POULTRY DISEASES 



In the articular form the joints of the feet are more often 
affected. Birds suffer especially in the tarsal, metatarsal and 
phalangeal joints and at times in the joints of the wings. 

In birds there is, in the early stages, extreme tenderness as 
manifested by the bird standing on one limb or resting on the 
breast and moping around, staying away from the balance of 
the flock. The affected limb causes the bird to be lame in that 
leg. At first the affected limb is swollen, soft, hot and tender 




Fig. 71. Gout of the Feet and Shanks of a I-'ive-Year-Old Barred Tlymouth 

Rock Capon. 
Gout lesions indicated by the arrows. 



and may pit on pressure ; later the parts may become extremely 
hard. The enlargements may attain the size of an English 
walnut and the parts may undergo necrosis. When necrosis 
occurs there may be discharged a granular yellowish-gray 
material similar to talc. The bones may become deflected from 
their normal direction as a result of the process. The diagnos- 



CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 199 

tic symptom is the finding of deposits of sodium urate in the 
lesion. 

This disease has been observed in capons five years of age. 
The capons were Barred Plymouth Rocks and Single Comb 
Rhode Island Reds. The birds were allowed to run at large 
and did not wander far from the barn, where there was, at 
times, an abundance of grain and especially more or less 
sprouting grain. 

The birds with gout were quite lame, sitting around, much 
of the time, in comfortable places and only moving when 
necessary. They were often noted to stand alternately on one 
foot or the other apparently to ease the pain. The swellings 
were irregular in shape and hard to the touch. The nodules 
measured three-quarters of an inch in the largest diameter. 
The mobility of these joints were limited. Fig. 71 shows the 
feet and shanks of one of these birds. 

In these birds the feather coat was rather rough; the comb 
and wattles as well as the face were pale. 

When gout assumes a chronic type, the ultimate outcome 
may be considered unfavorable. When ulcers are present it is 
observed that they do not entirely heal. The birds finally be- 
come unable to move about and care for themselves, become 
emaciated, exhausted and die. 



CHAPTER VIII 

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 

In the fall, winter, and spring, these diseases are a source 
of trouble to the poultry raiser, unless strict sanitation is 
observed. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE TRACHEA 

Obstruction of the trachea or "windpipe" quite frequently 
occurs in both chicks and adult fowls. Obstruction due to the 
gape worms has been discussed under the chapter on internal 
parasites. These obstructions cjuite often occur in chicks, due 
to the lodgment of a small piece of cracked corn or other 




Fig. 72. Obstruction of the Trachea. False 
Gapes. 

Showing depression, droopy wings, inability to 
stand, sleepy, mouth open. 

small seed and is known as False Gapes as the word gapes as 
used is taken to mean that condition caused by gape worms 
the Synganms trachcalis. Fig. 72 illustrates a case of sus- 
pected gapes. This bird was afflicted with false gapes and 
w^ould extend its head high into the air, gasping for breath as 
one whose trachea is obstructed by gapeworms ; it was \veak 
and unable to stand square upon its feet. It was destroyed, 
after photographing, for examination. A piece of corn grain 
was found in the trachea, surrounded by an accumulation of 
mucus due to the irritation its jM^esence in the trachea had 
caused. The foreign body and the accumulated mucus were 
obstructing the passage of air to the lungs ; hence, the 
asphyxiation. In some cases a whole grain of corn may 
become lodged in the trachea of adult fowls. Fig. 73 illustrates 



202 POULTRY DISEASES 

a case of this kind. Number 2 shows the larnyx or cartilag- 
inous box, laid open. This larynx is located at the upper end 
of the trachea. Number 3 is the trachea. Note that the 
trachea is made up of cartilaginous rings which are held 
together with connective tissue or fibrous structure. Number 
1 is the whole corn grain which has become lodged in the 
upper larynx. There was a rattling sound in the trachea 
during life of the hen. The hen was uncomfortable and there 
was a slight gasping for air from the start but, at first, not 
very aggravated till the presence of the grain of corn lying 
against the mucous membrane caiised an irritation and a pour- 
ing out of mucus. As a result of this irritation and pouring 
out of mucus there was a gradual closing of the trachea or 
air passage. The retching or gasping for air by extending 
the head far into the air was much aggravated for some time 




Fig. 16. Ihe i^arynx and the Trachea of a 
S. C. White Leghorn Hen. 
Commenced with rattling in the throat. Dif- 
ficult breathing, finally extending the head far 
into the air gasping. Corn grain is lodged 
in upper larynx. 1, corn grain; 2, larynx; 3, 
trachea. 

before death. If the obstruction had been observed soon 
enough it could have been easily removed by aid of a long 
pair of forceps. 

CATARRH "COLDS" 
Catarrh is a discharge of fluid from the nose. This term is 
usually a])plied to simple inflammation of the mucus mem- 
brane of the nasal and respiratory passages, but is now 
extended to all mucous membranes, as of the stomach, 
oviduct, etc. 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 203 

Cause. — Sudden changes in the weather, cold, damp 
weather, roosting in drafts, and chiUing by "getting wet in cold 
rains are some of the factors in the production of catarrh 
among birds. Such affections are more or less contagious, 
but bad sanitation plays an important part in their spread. 
Weak stock and poorly nourished birds are predisposing to 
this contagion. 

Symptoms. — The appetite may be somewhat diminished. 
The bird sneezes, throws its head and may expel some nuicus 
The discharge at first is watery and later becomes more or 
less thick, muco-purulent. The eyes may show more or less 
inflammation, conjunctivitis, and the eyelid may become stuck 
together. The characteristic offensive odor of roup is absent. 

Treatment. — The same treatment as outlined under nasal 
type roup has given uniform results. If the nostrils are 
syringed out with a warm solution of common baking soda, 
using one-half teaspoonful to a teacup of warm water; then 
injecting through the nose a solution of 30 drops each of oil 
of eucalyptus and oil of thyme, and ten grains crystals of 
menthol, in two ounces of oil, this bird will rapidly recover. 

ASTHMA 

True asthma is a chronic disease which may be inherited 
and is manifested by great difficulty in breathing, recurring at 
intervals, and accompanied with wheezing sound and a sense 
of constriction of the chest, and cough. There is a condition 
in fowls which has been described under the heading of 
asthma. 

Cause. — Asthma in fowls and canaries may be due to a 
fungus, aspergillus. Hence aspergillosis of the air passages 
will give similar symptoms or it may be due to other catarrhal 
conditions of the mticous membranes of this passage. 

Symptoms. — Wheezing sounds are noted and in expiration 
there is a creeking, whistling sound. 

Treatment. — Good sanitary surroundings, clean coops, no 
drafts. Treat local condition of which there is a symptom. 

ULCERATIVE PHARYNGITIS 

Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the ])harynx or throat. 
An ulcerative pharyngitis not accompanied by roup and called 
by some investigators diphtheritis may affect the pharynx. 
This condition is manifested by patches of coagulated exudate 
under which there is destruction of the cells of the mucus 
membrane. 

Symptoms. — The bird may remain on the roost much of the 
time ; there is an unkem])t appearance of the plumage ; there is 



204 



POULTRY DISEASES 



gradual loss in flesh when the appetite is interfered with, and 
the bird may find it difficult to swallow. The affected bird 
is noted, at feeding time, to not eat in a normal manner and 
may show signs of choking. In eating corn, wheat, and par- 
ticularly unhulled oats the throat is irritated and swallowing 
is very difficult. The bird may suddenly stop picking up feed, 
gives its head a jerk, cough, and may even show signs of 
choking especially when the inflammatory product in any way 
interferes with breathing as often the laryngeal surface or 
even its opening may be affected. The bird may open its 
mouth and extend its head into the air, the comb, face and 
wattles may become bluish in color due to choking. The 
coughing sound is made as the bird throws its head. Standing 
tucked up while on the perch or around the yard, the bird may 
be noted to occasionally open its mouth, and in fact sitting or 
standing with its mouth partly open is a diagnostic symptom. 




Fig. 74. Ulcerative Pharyngitis: Involving the Opening Into the J^akynx, 
1, top of larynx; 2, the ulceration with chccse-like mass 

When the mouth is opened and the pharynx observed it will 
be noted to be covered, to a more or less degree, with yellow- 
ish-white ulcers varying in size from a wheat grain to as large 
as one's thumb nail as shown in Fig. 74. 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 205 

Microscopic Study. — In an examination, of the section from the 
diseased area, under a microscope one finds an ulceration of a 
diphtheric nature. That is, a destruction of the surface cells and 
a pouring out of a material which coagulates into a cheesy-like 
material. 

Treatment. The parts should be swabbed out with pure 
iodine or a purple solution of permanganate of potash. 
Removing the cheese-like material in swabbing. To do this 
twist a small piece of cotton around the end of a stick, dip 
this in the solution for swabbing. 

BRONCHITIS 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining membrane of the 
bronchial tubes, always more or less present in cases of pul- 
monary catarrh, accompanied by cough and rattling in the 
throat, difficult and uneasiness in breathing. 

It has been noted in cases of catarrh of the nasal chambers 
that the inflammation may extend down and involve the 
pharynx and trachea, and even t otlie bronchi. Sudden 
changes in weather, dampness and roosting near a crack in 
the hen house so that a cold wind blows upon them, or, in 
fact, in any draft, are the principal causes of bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — A rattling sound may be heard in the region 
of the trachea and bronchi — neck and anterior part of the 
thorax — and constitute mucus rales. This sound is caused 
by a mixture of air and mucus. The bird may be seen to 
gasp for air by opening the mouth and extending the head 
upward. This difficulty in breathing is due to an accumula- 
tion of mucus in the air passages which partially closes them, 
thus preventing the bird from getting enough air into the 
lungs. The affected bird coughs, and there may be dullness 
and partial loss of appetite. 

The condition may pass off in a few days, may respond to 
treatment, or may last for several weeks and end in recovery 
or in death. In the latter case there is marked emaciation ; in 
the former the bird coughs up mucus for a long time, but 
otherwise appears well. 

Treatment. — A tablespoonful of castor oil to which 5 to 10 
drops of turpentine have been added may be given, and if 
catarrh is present, treatment should be as outlined under 
roup. Give one grain doses of quinine sulphate three times a 
day. Place the bird in warm, clean, comfortable quarters, 
free from drafts. Give plenty of clean water and soft feed 
such as bread or middlings moistened in milk, to which has 
been added 2 grains of black antimony for each bird. Feed 
twice daily. 



206 POULTRY DISEASES 

CONTAGIOUS BRONCHITIS 

There is a bronchitis and tracheitis observed among fowls 
that is apparently contagious. This disease appears in the 
same pen each year when young, apparently susceptible birds 
are placed in the flock in the fall, a certain per cent always 
develop the disease. Such pens apparently remain perma- 
nently infected. 

Symptoms. — The affected bird manifests a rattling in the 
throat and trachea. The bird wheezes, coughs, the comb and 
face appear dark, and the bird loses flesh. Laying hens cease 
to lay and cocks cease to fertilize eggs. 

Treatment. — The treatment that has given excellent results 
consist of injecting into the trachea some of the menthol and 
oil mixture mentioned under roup. To do this one attendant 
must hold the bird, a second hold the mouth open and the 
operator forcing the larynx upw^ard with one hand, when the 
glottis opens, drops, with a medicine dropper, two or three 
drops of the medicine into the trachea. This treatment should 
be repeated every two or three days. 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS 

Congestion of the lungs is an engorgement of the blood ves- 
sels of the lungs. Congestion of the lungs may terminate in 
pneumonia. Active congestion precedes pneumonia. It has 
been observed in young birds and in birds during their molting 
season, when they are poorly clad with feathers and exposed 
to bad weather. 

Young chicks that are allowed to run out in the early morn- 
ing and become wet with cold dew, and chicks allowed to be- 
come wet with cold spring rains and become chilled, are likely 
to suffer from congestion of the lungs and pneumonia. 

A contraction of the blood vessels of the skin and periphery 
forces an abnormal amount of blood to the internal organs, 
and congestion is the result. Improper feeding and lack of 
exercise are also contributing factors. Birds having this ail- 
ment will be noted to be sleepy and stupid, and to breathe 
rapidly. In some cases the breathing is difficult. The comb 
becomes bluish and the bird may die because it cannot get 
enough air into the Inugs — asphyxiation. 

Upon postmortem examination the lungs will be found engorged 
with blood. 

The pressure of the blood in the engorged blood vessels of 
the lungs may close the smaller air passages which they sur- 
round, or may burst their thin walls and fill the bronchi with 
blood. In either case rapid asphyxiation occurs. 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 207 

Treatment. — Congestion of the lungs runs an exceedingly 
rapid course, terminating in recovery, pneumonia, or death. 
Treatment is impractical. The ailment should be prevented by 
good feeding and adequate protection from cold or wet 
weather. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS— PNEUMONIA 

Pneumonia is an inflammation of the air vesicles and their 
supporting structure of the lungs. There are three chief va- 
rieties of pneumonia: 1, croupous, which is always acute and 
involves the entire lung structure of the part attacked; 
2, catarrhal or broncho-pneumonia involving primarily the 
mucous membrane of the bronchi and air vesicles ; and 3, inter- 
stitial pneumonia involving the supporting air cell structure. 

There are three stages of pneumonia : First, the stage of 
engorgement or congestion. The afifected lungs distended; 
firmer, of a red color ; and crepitates less than a normal lung. 
Second, red hepatization or consoHdation ; the afifected por- 
tion becomes solid, brownish in color, resembling normal liver 
tissue ; the air sacs and bronchi of the afTected part are filled 
with solid exudate. Third, gray hepatization and resolution 
or purulent inflammation. The afifected portion becomes gray 
by the disorganization of the blood globules, infiltration oi 
absorption takes place ; gangrene or calcareous encapsulation 
may take place. 

Bronchitis described above, often terminates in pneumonia, 
forming the broncho-pneumonia or catarrhal type. It has 
been observed by the writer that broncho-pneumonia, follow- 
ing an attack of bronchitis, is the most common form of dis- 
ease in the fowl. The causes of pneumonia are the same as the 
causes of colds and bronchitis, except that the exposure is 
often more severe. 

Symptoms. — There is an entire loss of appetite, with thirst 
and constipation. The bird stands with head drawn in, droop- 
ing wings and ruffled feathers ; breathing is rapid and painful, 
and there may or may not be coughing. There is usually a 
discharge of thick, adhesive mucus from the nostrils ; the eyes 
may be inflamed and water freely. The bird has every ap- 
pearance of severe illness. 

Treatment. — Except in the case of birds of unusual value, 
treatment is wholly impractical, owing to the amount of care 
and nursing necessary and because of the doubtful outcome. 

If treatment is undertaken, the birds should be warmly 
housed and the best of ventilation maintained. Spirits of 
camphor, two drops, and brandy 10 drops, should be given 



208 POULTRY DISEASES 

hourly in a teaspoonfiil of warm milk ; if the comb becomes 
dark, add one drop of fluid extract of digitalis to the medica- 
tion. 

Postmortem Findings. — Upon opening the bird that has died from 
pneumonia, the affected part of the lung will be observed to be 
dark red, and when cut through the sectioned surface appears like 
liver in texture. Yellowish colored serum and blood may pour 
out on the surface. 

CONTAGIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE AIR SACS 

IN GEESE 

This disease is an inflammation of the air sacs caused by 
a slender bacillus. 

Symptoms. — The bird shows great weakness, staggery gait, 
great depression, difficulty in rising, kicking at the head ap- 
pears to be a diagnostic symptom, increased rate of. breathing, 
snoring sounds and opening the mouth and gasping for air. 
The affected bird usually dies in about six to eight days. The 
disease appears to be confined entirely to geese. 

Postmortem Findings. — On autopsy the air sacs they are noted to 
appear yellowish in color, with their inner surface covered with a 
fibrinous exudate. Similar deposits are observed on the serous 
surfaces of the liver, spleen, intestines, and peritoneum. 

CONTAGIOUS NASAL CATARRH OF FOWLS 

This condition has also been called Coryza avium contagiosa 
and is manifested by a discharge from the nose, at first thin 
and watery, later thicker or muco-purulent. 

Cause. — This disease can be reproduced by experimental 
inoculation. It occurs epiornithologically, mostly among young 
fowls, during damp, cold weather and more often in the fall 
or spring. It may attack old hens. Here it is of economic 
importance because of the loss in the tgg yield of the laying 
flock. Many young birds succumb to its attack. A bacillus 
resembling in some respects the diphtheria bacillus of humans 
has been found accompanying the disease which Colon and 
others have termed the bacillus of fowl diphtheria. 

Mode of Spread. — The mucus secretions of the head con- 
tain the virus. Food contaminated with these discharges are a 
fruitful source of its spread through the flock. Perhaps the 
most rapid method of the dissemination of the virus is through 
the drinking water as an infected bird dipping its beak into 
the water will contaminate the whole vessel of water. A sus- 
ceptible bird drinking from such a vessel will become inocu- 
lated and will in all probabilities develop the disease. The dis- 
ease is also spread through contaminated utensils, man and 
animals. 

Symptoms. — The contagium spread in the manner above 
described may result in the disease affecting all the members 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 209 

of the flock in from two to six weeks. The sick bird stays 
apart from the balance of the flock and sits around with ruffled 
feathers and droopy wings. There is a partial loss of appetite, 
tears may be seen to accumulate in the conjunctiva. The outer 
nasal passage becomes partially or completely closed and 
breathing is accomplished wnth difficulty. The mouth is held 
open as the bird breathes with difficulty or not at all through 
the nostrils. The bird shakes its head at the same time sneez- 
ing throwing the discharge laden with virus over surrounding 
objects. The eyes are kept closed and the eyejids may become 
stuck together so that the bird cannot open its eyes. The 
infra-orbital sinus or sinus just below the eyes may become 
filled with secretion and bulge out, much as is often observed 
in roup. The death rate may run as high as 95 per cent. The 
nasal secretions remain thin until later stages. It is differen- 
tiated from roup by the fact that diphtheric membranes never 
form in the mouth or eye and there are no sores on the head. 
Treatment. — The same treatment is recommended as for 
roup, namely, the injection of the oily preparation through the 
nostrils and the use of a solution of permanganate of potash 
in the drinking water, making the water a red color. All af- 
fected birds are immediately removed from the balance of the 
flock and if thought curable may be placed in clean, comfort- 
able, warm quarters, and treated. Those that are thought cer- 
tain to die should be killed and these together with the birds 
that die should be burned. 

ROUP, AVIAN DIPHTHERIA, AND CHICKEN POX 

The relationship between the various diseases of the head 
of fowls has been the subject of much controversy. The con- 
ditions are variously called chicken pox, sore head, contagious 
epithelioma, avian diphtheria, diphtheritis, canker, colds, con- 
tagious catarrh, sicelled head, szvollen eye, roup, etc. 

The diseases here discussed will be those conditions of the 
head due to filterable virus or viruses. A filterable virus also 
called an ultramicroscopic organism is one that is so small that 
it cannot be seen under the microscope and cannot be grown 
in visible quantities on ordinary laboratory media and will 
pass through the fine filters visible germs will not pass. 

Experimental inoculations, conducted in this and other research 
laboratories, tell us that one filterable virus will cause the diseases 
which have been termed chicken pox, contagious epithelioma, ulcer- 
ative sore eye, and canker or avian diphtheria. 

CHICKEN POX 

Chicken pox, also commonly called sore head, is a disease of 
the unfeathered portions of the head and its adjuncts, namely, 



210 



POULTRY DISEASES 



the comb, face and wattles. Chicken pox may affect turkeys, 
pigeons and fowls. It has also been reported in geese. 

Cause. — As stated above the disease is caused by a filterable 
virus. 

Symptoms. — The disease appears in late summer, fall and 
early winter among the young susceptible birds. The old birds 
that have passed through the disease are immuned. Some 
have a natural resistance and do not develop the disease. The 
disease is universally found, and in some seasons is more severe 
than in others. It is one of the seasonal diseases. The first 
sign of the disease is a small red pimple on the comb, face or 
wattles, and must be differentiated from the small red pimples 
caused by the bites of mosquitoes. The nodules vary in size 
from a pin-head to the size of a pea, or even larger. Later 
these nodules ulcerate on the surface and it is this condition 
that it is commonly called sore head. The disease may be ac- 
companied with roup and with canker of the mouth. It is this 
point that makes these diseases hard to separate. At the same 
time the nasal discharge of roup will not reproduce, experi- 




FiG. 75. Chicken I'ux. 
A, the pox or epithelial tumor-like nodule; B, 
a nodule that has ulcerated. 

Microscopic Study. — A microscopic study of the nodule shows it 
to resemble in some respects an epithelioma. 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 



211 



mentally, either chicken pox, canker, or ulcerative sore eye. 
Nor will the curettings containing the virus of chicken pox, 
canker, or sore eye cause roup. It thus appears as though 
there may be two different filterable viruses at w^ork here 
though not being able to isolate such viruses it is to remain an 
unsolved and disputed point. The pox nodules may be found 
on all parts of the head, comb, face and wattles. At times the 
sores may extend more or less down the neck. Fig. 75 shows 
chicken pox of the comb and face. As the nodule heals it 
appears as a dark, later a black scab-like mass. Finally the 
scab drops off leaving a scar. 

CONTAGIOUS EPITHELIOMA 

Contagious epithelioma is a disease of the head of young 
birds, usually birds of from 1 to 3 pounds weight, manifesting 
itself as a large nodule which microscopically is identical to 
epithelial tumors. The affected bird always dies. It is believed 
that the cause is the highly virulent pox virus described above. 

Symptoms. — The epitheliomatous enlargements may involve 
any part of the head, and especially the unfeathered portions 
and may become as large as a hazel nut. Fig. 76 shows the 
earlier stages of the diseases. These are in two young chicks. 

These epithelial growths first appear small, have a smooth 
surface and a red or hyperemic zone ; they gradually increase 
in size till death of the chick. Necrosis may take place in vari- 
ous parts of the growth ; the sloughing may leave ulcerative 
surfaces. The tumor-like body may obstruct the eye sight and 
even obliterate the eye. 




Fig. 76. Photograph of the Heads of Two Chicks Affected With Con- 
tagious Epithelioma. 

Microscopic Study. — A microscopic study shows the structure to 
be that of an epitheHoma. The cells are arranged in more or less 



212 POULTRY DISEASES 

irregular rows supported by a network of connective tissue which 
is arranged in bundles between the nests of cells. The cells are of 
the epithelioma type. There may be observed necrosing foci. 

Research has shown that there is a specific antibody developed 
in birds affected with chicken pox. By the use of the compliment 
fixation method the blood from the diseased fowl exhibits fixation 
of the compliment not shown by normal fowl's blood, thus show- 
ing that it is a specific germ disease. The antigen was prepared 
both from tumors on the head and from the liver of birds sick of 
the disease. 

Treatment. — Treatment for chicken pox is of two kinds ; 
namely, medical application and vaccination. The best medical 
treatment consists of thoroughly rubbing on the affected parts 
some of the following preparation. Oil thyme, 30 drops ; oil 
eucalyptus, 30 drops ; menthol crystals 10 grains ; neutral oil as 
paraf^ne oil 2 ounces. The germs appear to be aerobic and 
any oily preparation will be beneficial except in the virulent 
type called contagious epithelioma. 

All dead fowls should be burned and the sick ones should 
be immediately removed from the flock for treatment or de- 
struction. 

Maintain sanitary conditions by frequently cleaning and dis- 
infection of the hen house and ploughing the yards. Chicken 
pox virus is very resistant to the action of disinfectants and 
this process must be thoroughly carried out. 

All new stock brought into the premises should be quaran- 
tined for two weeks before being placed with other birds. 

Carefully examine each fowl occasionally for evidence of 
the disease. If a bird hesitates, at feeding time, to eat, catch 
her and examine the mouth and throat for disease. 

Proper methods of housing and feeding are very important 
matters for successful poultry keeping. 

The second method of "attack is preventative measures by 
vaccination. The imniimization of fowls against chicken pox 
has been practised by a number of investigators. It has not 
been possible to perfect a vaccine which will always produce 
immunity against severe artificial infections, but with highly 
potent strains of virus a vaccine may be prepared which will 
confer sufficient immunity to enable a flock to weather an out- 
break of the disease without serious loss. The resistance is 
slow in developing, varying in different fowls from three to 
six wrecks. One vaccination is considered sufificient in healthy 
or slightly infected flocks. In badly infected flocks a second 
treatment is advised for all fowls. In very severe outbreaks 
the injections should be continued at intervals of five to seven 
days until the disease disappears. The vaccine appears to have 
considerable curative properties when given to fowls sick of 
the disease. When the sick bird is of sufficient value to war- 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 213 

rant the trouble of handling, it should be isolated from the 

healthy fowls, and in addition to medical treatment be given 

one to two c. c. of vaccine every three days until improvement 

is noted. 

Method of Vaccination. — The vaccine is given by injecting it be- 
neath the skin with a hypodermic syringe. The dose is one cubic 
centimeter for each bird. The most convenient place for administra- 
tion is beneath the skin of the breast under the thigh as the skin 
at this point is practically free from feathers. The bird may be 
held by the operator or by an assistant. 

When the operator holds the bird the left wing is held back, the 
fowl is laid on its left side, and the right wing and leg and feathers 
are held back with the last three fingers of the left hand. The ex- 
posed skin is then cleaned with a piece of cotton saturated with a 
disinfectant solution, using a 4 per cent of some standardized coal 
tar disinfectant dip, and picked up with the thumb and forefinger 
of the left hand. Then with the right hand the syringe needle is 
inserted beneath the skin and the proper dose injected. With a 
little practice one man with an assistant to catch the birds can vaccinate 
100 to 150 per hour. 

When an assistant holds the bird both wings are grasped with the 
left hand and both legs with the right hand. The bird is then laid on 
its left side with the breast toward the operator. The operator standing 
a little to the rear of the bird, cleans the skin at the point of injec- 
tion, picks it up with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and 
with the right hand, inserts the syringe needle beneah theskin and 
injects the vaccine. By this method a man with two assistants to 
catch and hold the fowls can vaccinate 200 to 300 per hour. 

A syringe of six to twelve cubic centimeters capacity is well suited 
for this work. The needle should be 16 to 18 gagus and from 1^ to 2 
inches in length. A screw needle is preferable. 

Preparation of the Vaccine. — Young susceptible large comb cock- 
erels as Single Comb White Leghorns are used for inoculation pur- 
poses. Scarify the comb and inoculate with a virulent virus secured 
from the sores of a virulent type of sore head. Sores will appear in 
five to seven days and develop sufficiently to permit the removal 
of scabs in 2 to 3 weeks. After the disease has developed and scabs 
have appeared curette the sore and dry the scabs in a dessicator 
over calcium chloride. After the scabs are water-free reduce to a 
fine powder in a glass mortar with a pestle. Place one gram of the 
powder in 100 cc. physiological salt solution and place in a water 
bath at 60° C. for 60 minutes and place in it, as a preservative 0.5 
per cent carbolic acid. 

The liquid vaccine thus prepared deteriorates very rapidly and 
must be used at once. Until used the vaccine should be kept in a 
cool place as an ice box. 

The injection must be just under the skin and bad results are 
likely to follow if given into the muscle. 

DIPHTHERIC ROUP— CANKER 

Diphtheric roup or avian diphtheria is manifested by sores 
in the mouth. These sores are covered with a yellowish white 
cheesy mass and when removed the underlying tissue is noted 
to be ulcerated. It is a true diphtheric inflammation. 



214 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Fig. 77 shows the upper and lower walls of the mouth badly 
affected with these ulcers. 




Fig. n. Diphtheric Roup in a Fowl. 

A, the yellowish-white diphtheric patches on 
the vipper surface of the tongue and lower jaw, 
natural size; B, diphtheric patches on the hard 
palate and the upper jaw. 

Diphtheric roup may be spread by introducing affected birds 
into the flock, at poultry shows, or being shipped in infected 
coops, or by contaminated utensils, and by man and animals, 
as dogs, rats, etc. The disease may be spread through the 
flock through contaminated drinking water. 

Diphtheric roup may a])pear as simple ulcers covered by 
thick cheesy crusts or it may assume a malignant type and 
gradually erode through the wall of the mouth. This usually 
occurs in the bony structure of the roof of the mouth finally 
destroying considerable tissue and making curetting and treat- 
ment impossible. Such malignant cases always die and treat- 
ment is not advisable. 

Treatment. — With dull knife or curette scrape all of the 
cheesy accumulation and rub the sore with a stick of nitrate of 
silver till all parts turn white. Repeat in five days if necessary. 
Or pure tincture of iodine may be used. 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 215 

DIPHTHERIC SORE EYE 

Diphtheric sore eye or occular type roup is an inflammation 
tion of the mucous membrane covering the anterior portion 
of the eyeball, the conjunctiva. As the diseases progresses, 
the catarrhal products accumulate as a watery, clot-like mass, 
whitish in color. The eyelids stick together and hold the mate- 
rial as it accumulates, till the part bulges outward. The in- 
flammation may involve the deeper structures of the eyeball 
and blindness occur and at times necrosis of the eyeball occurs, 
with a complete destruction of same. Keratitis or a white 
cloudy condition of the cornea precedes the more aggravated 
conditions. 

There is loss of appetite, the bird appears weak, it sits 
around in corners or on the perch poles. Its walk is unsteady, 
and rapidly becomes emaciated. Ulcerations of the mucous 
membrane of the eye may occur. Death may follow in the 
course of a few days. This condition may be accompanied 
with ulcers in the mouth or with sore head or it may be the 
only affection of the fowl. 

Treatnient. — Press open the eyelids, remove with a piece of 
cotton, the white clot. Inject a few dops of the oily prepara- 
tion mentioned for sore head. If it does not respond use two 
drops of a 1 per cent solution of Zenoleum once every three 
days with the oil preparation. 

ROUP 

Roup as generally understood is a catarrhal condition char- 
acterized by a discharge, of an offensive nature, from the nose. 
This discharge is at first thin and watery and later may be- 
come muco-purulent, gluing shut the nasal openings. The 
stinking odor is characteristic of roup. This disease may occur 
alone in a flock but is usually accompanied with canker of the 
mouth and sore head. It is caused by a filterable virus and is 
believed by most investigators to be a distinct disease from 
sorehead and canker, as the discharge from the nose does not 
produce these diseases when inoculated into other fowls. 

Roup may assume a mild form in a flock or it may be very 
severe, killing many of the affected birds. In the early stages 
in very mild cases there are no or very few general symptoms. 
Secondary invaders may occur and the symptoms become 
more aggravated. In the acute severe cases the bird is dull, 
assumes a sitting posture, the wings are held pendent, the 
plumage is rough, and the patient shows much depression. 
The comb and wattles grow bluish-red in color, later they are 
pale and cold. In the colder climates the disease may assume 
a subacute or chronic form, while in warmer climates the 



216 



POULTRY DISEASES 



acute form is most often observed. Frequently, however, the 
disease assumes the character of a chronic catarrh. 

The disease usually makes its first appearance in the fall of 
the year and often occurs soon after the birds have been placed 
in their winter quarters. The affected bird sneezes, the eyes 
may be inflamed, the mouth held open for breathing as the 
nostrils may be partially or wholly closed. The feathers un- 
kempt appearance, the bird refuses food, great depression, 
sits off in a corner or remains on the perch pole, and rapidly 
becomes emaciated and dies in a few days. 

It must also be suspected when similar symptoms appear 
after adding new birds to a healthy flock or returned birds 
from a show. 

Postmortem Appcannicc. — The toxin, or poison, from the areas of 
disease is very destructive, as the rapid emaciation of the bird, 
following a severe attack, shows. Upon examination of the mem- 
branes that have formed in the mouth, it will be found that when 
they are removed there is left a raw, granular appearing surface. 
Upon microscopic examination, there may be seen cellular infiltra- 
tion, with a destruction of cells of the mucous membrane under- 
lying the diphtheric mass. An examination of the infraorbital 
sinus, see Fig. 2, No. 31, will reveal it to be filled with a purulent 
material, which is often cheesy in consistency. The wall over this 
part is very thin and can be easily opened with a knife. 

A microscopic study of sections of the head, through the inflamed 
area, the mucous lining of the nasal passage, shows considerable 
thickening and an acute inflammation — invasion with polymor- 
phonuclear leucocytes; at times the entire passage is plugged with 
mucus. 




Fig. 7b Roup of a Fowl Showing Bulging 
OF Till-; Infraorbital Sinus, at A. 

Treatment. — In looking toward treatment and sanitation one 
takes into consideration the resistance of the organism to be 



RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 217 

combated. Finely powdered virus, from this source and from 
sorehead, mixed in physiological salt solution and placed in 
sealed tubes and these tubes placed in a water bath at 60° C. 
resulted in killing the virus in eight minutes. The finely pow- 
dered virus was killed in 30 minutes when heated to a tempera- 
ture of 56°. Suspension in water, at a temperature of 37° C. 
killed it in eight days. Scabs exposed to sunlight in Petri 
dishes wtve active after two months. Exposed to 1 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid for one and one-half hours did not 
kill it. 

Dispose of the chronic carrier. The chronic carrier may 
be known by its symptoms. The chronic carrier is usually a 
bird light in weight, pale face, comb and wattles, not in laying 
condition. Sits on the perch poles much of the time and is 
occasionally noted to sneeze. If this bird be caught and exam- 
ined it will be noted to have a slight discharge from the nose. 
This discharge has a stinking roup odor. Such a bird will 
continually spread the germs of the disease which virus is very 
resistant as above shown. When the right conditions are pres- 
ent and susceptible birds an outbreak of roup may be expected. 
Wet floors, or concrete floors in which there is no underdrain- 
age provided, in wet cold fall season, often is a fruitful source 
of roup. Correct any bad sanitation or hygiene, which may 
be a predisposing cause. The hen house should be well venti- 
lated, but should allow of no drafts on the birds, and should 
be kept clean and free from dampness. It should be cleaned 
and disinfected daily with some standardized coal tar disinfec- 
tant dip using a 5 per cent solution. If the bird attacked is not 
a valuable one or if emaciation is rapid and there is no hope 
it should be killed and this and all dead birds should be burned. 

As general preventative measures all diseased birds should 
be immediately isolated from the flock. Cleaning and disinfec- 
tion of the house and yards, quarantine for two weeks all new 
birds or birds that have been to a show, careful examination 
of each fowl occasionally, if disease is present in the neighbor- 
hood. 

The same treatment as prescribed for colds is indicated. 
Syringe out the nostrils with a soda solution. Place a half tea- 
spoonful of common baking soda in a teacup of warm water 
and use this to syringe out the nostrils. This cuts the mucus 
so that the oily medicine that is to follow will come in direct 
contact with the inflamed mucous membrane. To make this 
injection procure a hard rubber syringe with a small nozzle 
so that the nozzle can be inserted into the anterior nose open- 
ing. Have an assistant hold the fowl with head down and 
force liquid through the nose till it comes out of the slit in the 



218 POULTRY DISEASES 

roof of the mouth. By holding the bird with head down the 
hquid will run out onto the ground and not have a chance of 
running into the trachea and lungs and causing further trouble. 
Following this a small quantity of the following preparation 
should be injected into the nostrils : Oil eucalyptus, 30 drops ; 
oil thyme, 30 dro])s ; menthol crystals, 10 grains ; oil petrol, 2 
ounces. All liquids injected into the inflamed mucous mem- 
brane should be warm. Repeat this treatment three times a 
day. Give an abundance of clean water and soft, easily di- 
gested food. 

RESPIRATORY DISEASES OF CANARIES 

Canaries are affected by similar respiratory diseases as de- 
scribed for fowls. As a preventative the cage of the canaries 
should be kept clean, free from drafts, and the birds should 
have a well regulated food supply. When the bird is first 
noticed to be ill, it should be isolated, and its diet regulated. 
Proper sanitary conditions of the cage and the cage kept in a 
well regulated temperature. Canaries suffer from cold drafts 
and it may be said that most of their common ailments come 
from this sort of exposure. 

In ordinary colds there is noted difficult breathing, with some 
thin fluidy discharge from the nostrils. This may be accompa- 
nied with cough. As the cold progresses the symptoms become 
more aggravated. Breathing becomes more difficult and rapid. 
The catarrhal secretions may partly or completely block the 
nasal passage. 

ASTHMA OF CANARIES 

Asthma in canaries is a chronic affection. There is difficult 
breathing, the greatest difficulty apparently, is with expira- 
tion. In severe cases there is a contraction of the abdominal 
muscles in forcing air into the lungs. The symptoms of 
asthma is more evident at night, and often birds apparently 
free from it during the day will wheeze when at rest. 

False asthma may be caused by indigestion and overeating. 
Fanciers consider asthma as hereditary and do not recommend 
such birds for breeding. There is little that can be done for 
this condition except to give a light diet. 

Treatment. — Place in the drinking cup one ounce of water 
to which has been added 20 drops of syrup of tolu, 10 drops 
sweet spirits of niter, and 10 drops of glycerine. If the case 
is severe add 10 drops of whiskey or brandy. Pneumonia is 
quite often fatal. The birds become very weak and usually 
die in from two to seven days. 



CHAPTER IX 
DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Congestion, inflammation and necrosis of the liver as seen 
in many of the infectious diseases have already been referred 
to under the discussions of these different diseases, as chicken 
cholera, blackhead, tuberculosis, etc. Aside from disease of 
the liver due to infection, the commonest cause of ailments of 
this organ is improper feeding. It is with great difficulty that 
diseases of the liver can be recognized except upon post- 
mortem examination. 

FATTY DEGENERATION 

Fatty degeneration of the liver is a degenerative and dis- 
integrating change by conversion of the cell structure into fat. 
There is a disease process in the cytoplasm of the liver cells, by 
which the normal secreting cells of the liver are to a greater or 
less extent replaced by fat cells. The liver is smaller than 
normal, unless fatty infiltration is also present ; the liver ap- 
pears slightly yellowish, and when cut through with a knife, 
the blade of the instrument will have a greasy appearance, due 
to the fat that adheres to it. 

Symptoms. — Birds afifected with fatty degeneration of the 
liver show varied symptoms, but ordinarily they are dull, eat 
little and the comb turns dark or even black. They gradually 
become thin in flesh and finally die. Usually the bird will live 
from two to three weeks to as much as three months after the 
symptoms first appear. An autopsy of all organs, as a rule, 
appear normal except the liver. 

Treatment. — There is very little that can be done for this 
condition. Podophylin in one-grain doses repeated every three 
days may be given with some hope of relief. 

FATTY INFILTRATION 

Fatty infiltration of the liver consists in the addition of fat 
in the liver. It is a notable increase in the amount of fat nor- 
mally present in the liver. 

This condition may be a physiological or normal process 
until the accumulation of fat occurs in such quantities as to 
interfere with the function of the liver cells. 

Overfed hens, or those closely housed and not forced to 
work, or fed too heavily on carbohydrates or starchy feeds, 
store up much of the surplus nutrition in the liver as well as 
in other portions of the abdomen, especially in the mesentery 



220 POULTRY DISEASES 

and in the abdominal walls. Geese are often fed large quanti- 
ties of fat and carbohydrates to make fatty delicate livers for 
the table. This is a physiological process of excessive storage 
of fat in the liver. 

At autopsy the liver will be observed to be enlarged, brown- 
ish or grayish-brown in color or mottles, friable, that is, tears 
easily, and when cut through appears ''greasy," much fat ad- 
hering to the knife blade. In these cases rupture of the liver 
often occurs when the hen is stepped upon by a large animal, 
is thrown or jumps a long distance on hard ground or a con- 
crete floor. Heavy heiis with clipped wings are prone to be 
injured in this way. 

In the liver, in which excessive fat is stored up, there is, after 
a while, an encroachment upon the protoplasm to such an ex- 
tent that the cells cannot properly functionate and then death 
of the bird may occur. In these cases a microscopic examina- 
tion shows the nuclei of the cells to be pushed to one side, and 
the protoplasm atrophied and disappearing. This is a patho- 
logical condition. 

RUPTURE OF THE LIVER 

The liver may rupture or tear and thus cause internal hem- 
orrhage which is usually fatal. It may occur where the liver 
is excessively congested with blood or is overly filled with fat, 
as mentioned above, violence may result in rupture. From 
such internal hemorrhage the bird appears pale faced with pale 
comb and wattles. 

Appearance at Autopsy. — There is considerable blood observed over 
the liver and among the intestines and other abdominal organs. 
Usually the blood is coagulated. An examination of the liver 
shows a tear which often is an inch in length. The organ may be 
considerably enlarged. A microscopic examination may show con- 
gestion with an occasional small hemorrhage into the liver tissue. 

CONGESTION OF THE LIVER 

Congestion of the liver is an engorgement or an abnormal 
accumulation of blood in that organ. It is an important con- 
dition in fevers, and other disorders ; and may arise either 
from an extraordinary flow of blood by the arteries, or from 
a difficulty in the return of the blood to the heart by the veins. 

There are therefore two kinds of congestion of the liver, 
active and i)assive. Active congestion precedes inflammation 
and is a state in which the capillaries, arterioles and arteries 
are engorged with blood. It may be caused by local irritation. 

Passive congestion of the liver is usually due to a weak heart 
or a leaky valve between the two cavities of the right side. 
The blood backs up into the liver, and the central veins of the 
lobules and capillaries, between the columns of liver cells, be- 



DISEASES OF LIVER 221 

come engorged. It gives the cut surface a peculiar yellowish 
mottled appearance called ''nutmeg liver," from a fancied re- 
semblance that it bears to the sectional surface of a nutmeg. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER 

Inflammation is a succession of changes that take place in 
a tissue as a result of an injury provided that injury is not 
sufficient to at once produce death of the part. That injury 
may be due to bacteria, or their toxins, or to protozoa, or 
mechanical, thermic as heat or cold, electric, or chemicals. 

The process of inflammation comprises changes in the blood 
vessels and circulation, exudation of fluid and of blood cor- 
puscles from the vessels, and changes in the inflamed tissue. 

Inflammation of the liver may be the result of absorption 
of poisonous products from the intestines. These products or 
toxins, lodge in the liver, or the inflammation may be due to 
infection or germs, such as fowl typhoid. The irritation causes 
an active congestion followed by a migration of great numbers 
of polymorphonuclear leucocytes or white blood cells, and of 
thrombocytes, constituting inflammation. The liver is en- 
larged, dark, and easily torn ; it appears very full of blood. 

In many, and in fact most, of the contagious diseases and 
especially the septicaemias inflammation of the liver or hepa- 
titis occurs. 

Symptoms. — In general the symptoms of hepatitis or inflam- 
mation of the liver are those of a loss of appetite, weak in the 
legs, rapid emaciation, dark comb, face and wattles, finally un- 
able to stand lies on its side. The bird may live from a few 
days to two or even three weeks. 

Postmortem Findings. — The liver will be observed to be enor- 
mously enlarged, often weighing as much as 176 grams while the 
normal liver weighs but 35 grams. The surface has a grayish mot- 
tled appearance. Under the microscope these pale gray, irregular 
areas prove to be liver areas packed with white blood cells and 
thrombocytes. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BILE DUCTS AND GALL 

BLADDER 

An inflammation of the bile ducts is called angiocholitis and 
an inflammation of the gall bladder is called chilecystitis. Both 
of these conditions may be met with in the bird. A postmor- 
tem examination of the gall bladder shows its contents to be 
rather mucilaginous in consistency and containing only a small 
amount of the biliary elements. 



222 POULTRY DISEASES 

ENTEROHEPATITIS 

Enterohepatitis is a disease of turkeys and to a less extent 
of small chicks and other young birds, which extends from the 
intestine and involves the liver. It is discussed under diseases 
due to single celled animal parasites. 

OTHER DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Abcesscs and Tumors. — Abscesses and tumors of the 
liver appear to be very rare in the chicken and other birds 
with the exception of sarcoma of the liver, which we have fre- 
quently observed. Malignant tumors as sarcomas and carci- 
nomas or cancer of this organ are usually associated with 
similar tumors of the other abdominal organs. 

Jaundice. — Jaundice is a staining of the tissues yellow with 
bile. Jaundice may be caused by an obstruction of the bile 
in its natural channels, bile being absorbed into the blood. 
Jaundice in the fowl is very rare, and appears to result from a 
long continued mild congestion of the liver. 

Ccrconwniasis or spotted liver is a type of disease of the 
liver due to an infectious animal organism, the monocercom- 
onas gallinarum, and is associated, at times, with severe 
diarrheas. 

Aspergillosis is a disease due to the fungus Aspergillus fu- 
migatus. It commonly affects the lungs but may, and occasion- 
ally does affect the liver. This disease has been discussed. 

Amyloid degeneration. — Amyloid degeneration is a patho- 
logical condition in which a firm waxy substance is present in 
the tissues, not responding to chemical agents and resisting 
putrefaction. The substance resembles starch or glycogen. 
Amyloid degeneration of the liver, spleen and kidneys has been 
observed in birds afflicted with tuberculosis. In some cases 
the liver appears granular and brittle. Amyloid deposits in 
these organs have also been observed in this laboratory in hens 
dying of purulent peritonitis. 



CHAPTER X 

DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND THE OVIDUCT 

PROLAPSE OR EVERSION OF THE OVIDUCT 

Prolapse or eversion of the oviduct is a condition in which 
the oviduct has passed through the natural orifice with which 
it is connected. This condition has been illustrated under the 
condition described under the heading of prolapse of the cloaca 
and oviduct. 

Prolapse of the oviduct of the fowl is a common ailment of 
laying hens. It may be seen in pullets in early winter that are 
being force fed with highly stimulating feeds. Aggravated 
constipation has also been observed to be associated with this 
condition. When the eggs are large and considerable strain- 
ing takes place during their passage, and in inflammation of 
the mucous lining of the oviduct or egg canal, prolapse or pro- 
truding of the mucous membrane through the cloaca may be 
observed. In constipation, the bowels become engorged, and 
this in addition to the obstruction when the egg canal contains 
one or more developing eggs, and the ovary, being active, is 
larger and adds to the bulk, predisposes to prolapse. 

This condition is most often seen in hens that are heavy 
layers. It perhaps occurs most often in pullets but may also 
occur in older hens. If the prolapsed or protruding mucous 
membrane is allowed to extend through the anus, it soon be- 
comes inflamed from exposure to the air and infection takes 
])lace. Later the parts may become ulcerated as a result of 
mechanical injuries or the attack of germs. 

Treatment. — Wash oiT the accumulated material on the vent 
feathers with clean, soapy warm water. After cleansing the 
hands, replace the protruding mass, using on the fingers carbo- 
lized vaseline, three to five per cent strength. Keep the hens 
on a light diet for several days so that the ])arts may have a 
re -t and the irritation causing the trouble subside. It is best 
to give only soft feed and liquids. Give the hen a tablespoonful 
of olive oil and plenty of clean water. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE OVIDUCT 
(Egg Bound) 

An obstruction of the oviduct or egg canal is brought about 
by any condition that arrests the passage of the egg, during its 
formation. This is a common ailment of laying hens, perhaps 
the commonest of all discussed conditions of the oviduct. The 
poultry raiser knows this condition as ''egg bound," by which 



224 POULTRY DISEASES 

is meant that there is something in the oviduct which the bird 
cannot force out. 

The upper portion of the oviduct, or that part which receives 
the ovum or yolk as soon as it is fully formed in the ovary 
and delivered, is lined with secreting cells. In this part the 
albumin which surrounds the yolk is formed. Further along 
the glands secrete the shell or calcium layer after forming 
around the mass the fibrous membranes or sacs. It can be 
readily seen, for all this to be brought about, there must be an 
abundant blood supply. An inflammation of the egg duct may 
be the result of infection from the digestive tract by way of 
the cloaca. Such inflammation means an arrest of function of 
these glands. There are other cells that secrete mucus which 
lubricates the passage way, and these too, are arrested in their 
function. The result is a stoppage of the egg. 

Other causes are : eggs of too large size, exhaustion of the 
bird and atony and paralysis of muscular walls of the oviduct 
and vagina, volvulus or twisting and stricture of the oviduct. 
Weakened muscles, the result of disease, improper nourish- 
ment and overwork are contributing factors. Polypi of the 
oviduct have been found in which obstruction resulted. 

Symptoms. — The hen goes frequently to the nest and re- 
peatedly makes expulsive efiforts but cannot lay. If the obstruc- 
tion is well along in the Qgg canal the Qgg may be felt as a hard 
object in the posterior part of the abdomen. In many cases 
the obstruction is so far up in the oviduct it cannot be felt or 
seen and we must depend for diagnosis upon the action of the 
bird, which sufifers acutely under these conditions. 

Treatment. — First be sure that the bird will not lay the egg 
unaided. Allow her to remain quiet and alone for a couple of 
hours ; she will often relieve herself unaided. If it is evident 
that the bird must be given help, wash the hands carefully with 
soap and water, and lubricate the index finger with three to 
five Y>er cent carbolized vaseline, which can be secured at any 
drug store, pass the finger through the anus and cloaca into 
the egg canal and remove the egg. Great care must be exer- 
cised not to tear the oviduct as the walls of this organ are very 
tender. At times the egg is large and it may be necessary to 
break the shell in order to remove it. If the egg is broken, 
make sure that all parts of the shell are removed. By referring 
to Fig. 2 the relations of these organs may be seen. 

After removal of the egg give the hen a tablespoonful of 
olive oil or castor oil, taking care that it does not find its way 
into the windpipe, and place her on a light diet, as bread 
soaked in milk or grain, for a few days. Recovery usually 



DISEASES OF OVARY AND OVIDUCT 225 

occurs in the simple uncomplicated cases which form the 
majority ; in complicated cases death is often the result. 

RUPTURE OF THE OVIDUCT 

Rupture of the oviduct is a tear in its wall and is observed 
in the hen. This condition is usually a complication of obstruc- 
tion of the oviduct. It is frequently fatal in a very short 
time and in such cases can be diagnosed only upon postmortem 
examination. 

Cause. — ^Vigorous contraction of the muscular walls of the 
egg canal in expulsion efforts sometimes results in a rupture of 
the wall. When this occurs the usual sequel is peritonitis or an 
inflammation of the serous lining of the abdominal cavity, and 
death of the bird results. Disease processes sometimes so 
weaken the wall that it gives way under the stress of natural 
contraction. 

S\Jiipfoius. — The hen ceases to lay, the abdomen becomes 
larger and often one or more eggs can be felt by palpating or 
feeling between the hands, the lower portion of the abdomen. 
Often the hen is noted to sit up penguin-fashion, walking 
with tail and posterior portion of the abdomen dragging the 
ground. There is nothing to do except to kill the bird. At 
autopsy there will be found many yolks in the abdominal 
cavity, possibly one or more with shells and possibly an inflam- 
mation of the lining of the cavity or peritoneum. 

BROKEN EGGS IN OVIDUCT _ 

Eggs in the oviduct, as w^ell as ova still undelivered, are often 
found broken as a result of a kick of a large animal or of the 
hen being stepped upon. Death usually follows, if not imme- 
diately from the injury, which breaks the Ggg, after several 
days as a result of complicated obstruction of the oviduct 
resulting from the fibrous exudate thrown out about the 
broken yolk. 

Rupture of the ovarian capsules containing the yolk may 
also take place especially in heavy hens roosting on high perch- 
]:)oles and by jumping upon the hard floor, causing rupture of 
the larger forming yolks or ova or of eggs in the egg canal. 

ULCERATION OF THE ANUS. AND LOWER BOWEL 

AND OVIDUCT 

Syinf^fotiis. — The fowl is thin in flesh and feathers soiled 
around the vent. Upon examination of the vent region an 
ulceration of the anus is observed. A very offensive stinking 
odor is emitted. The appearance of the comb, face, and 
wattles shows such a hen not in laying condition. 



226 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Autopsy. — Upon opening the abdominal cavity the ovary is 
noted to be in an inactive state. See Fig. 79. In opening the 
cloaca, large intestine and oviduct it is observed that the ulcer- 
ation has extended more or less along the mucous membranes 
of these tracts. Under these conditions constriction of the 
oviduct by new formed tissue completely obstructs this passage. 

Treatment. — Syringe out the parts three times a day with a 
solution of ferrous sulphate using five grains to the ounce of 
warm water. 

ABNORMAL EGGS 

Many kinds of abnormal eggs are produced by fow^s owing 
to various diseased or other abnormal conditions of the genera- 
tive apparatus. Because of the rarity of their occurrence such 
eggs are of little importance to the practical poultry raiser, but 
they possess much interest for the scientific investigator. 




Fig. 79. Obstruction of the Oviduct Due to Ulceration of the Anus With 
New Formed Connective Tissue Obliterating the Opening of the Oviduct. 
This obstruction stopped the passage of 9 yolks. 1, ulceration of anus; 2, the 
ovary; 3, two atrophied ova; 4, the kidney; 5, the cloaca: 6 shows the fibroid 
obstruction; 7, obstructed yolks; 8, the only portion of the oviduct not occupied by 
yolks; 9, the lungs. 

In any of the breeds of the domestic fowl, there arc occasional 
individuals producing one or more small eggs which are from one- 
tenth to one-half the size of normal eggs. 

Soft-shell Eggs. — This is a condition where eggs are laid without 
a sufficient amount of shell substance covering the shell membrane. 
The commonest cause is overfeeding, another cause is the lack of 
sufficient shell-making material in the feed; still another cause is 
fright, which may cause a premature detachment of the yolk. 

The cause should be remedied and the condition will disappear 
without further treatment. 

Yolkless Eggs. — These are small eggs, in which the albumin and 
shell are formed about a small portion of detached yolk, a minute 
piece of hardened albumin or a bit of coagulated blood instead of 
the normal yolk. 



DISEASES OF OVARY AND OVIDUCT 227 

Double and Triple Yolk Eggs. — Eggs with two yolks are common. 
They are caused by two yolks getting into the oviduct and being 
enclosed together in the albumin and the shell. Three yolked eggs 
are rare, and have a similar origin. 

Eggs with More than one Shell Covering. — Spasms or reversed 
action of the muscles of the oviduct may cause the egg to be passed 
back from the shell gland portion, after the shell has been deposited 
on it, to the ovarian pocket or starting point. This may be due to 
irritation of that part. After the spasm has subsided the egg again 
passes down the egg canal and another layer of albumin is de- 
posited around it, then another shell membrane as it passes through 
the isthmus, and finally another shell. This is shown in the photo- 
graph in Fig. 80. 

Eggs zvith More than One Membrane. — If there is a sensitive spot 
in the isthmus or immediately below it the eggs with its membrane 
may be forced back to the ovarian pocket or starting point, and 




Fig. 80. Eggs Within Eggs. 

1, the outside of a normal egg; 2 and 3, 
showing the eggs inside their second shell cover- 
ings. 

after the spasm has subsided, the egg will again pass down the 
oviduct receiving another coat of albumin as it passes through the 
albumin secreting portion and then another membrane over this. 
As many as four such membranes have been observed. Fig. 81 
illustrates one of these cases. 

Symptoms. — In such cases there may be a rupture of the parts and 
many eggs find their way out into the abdominal cavity and will 
show, at times, symptoms of running straddle legged, sitting down 
much of the time. Standing penguin fashion. The abdomen is 
very large, and on palpation or feeling the abdomen between the 
hands, it fluctuates as though it contained liquid. 

Postmortem Findings. — Eggs in various stages of development will 
be found in the abdominal cavity. Some of the egg material may 
have been absorbed. A chronic peritonitis may be present. At 
times nature will have tried to encapsulate them and new formed 
connective tissue may be found around the individual eggs, finally 



228 



POULTRY DISEASES 



the abdominal tumor-like mass when cut through will show areas of 
yolk surrounded with albumen in a more or less degenerative stage 
and among these the new formed connective tissue — nature's effort 
to heal or organize the part. 

Bloodspecks, Blood Rings, and Egg Inclusions. — These conditions 
have little significance; particles of coagulated blood as shown in 
Fig. 82, No. 1, due to a hemorrhage when the ovum or yolk is dis- 
charged from the ovarian capsule where it develops, are most com- 
mon, but lumps of bacteria, worms, fecal matter, etc., have been 
observed. 




Fig. 81. An Egg With Four Membranes. 
1, the egg; 2, the second membrane; 3, the third membrane; 4, the fourth 
membrane. 



Blood clots may be found in either the yolk or the white or al- 
bumin. 

If hemorrhage occurs in the yolk, the clot has formed in the 
ovary before it was delivered into the oviduct. If the clot is in the 
white it has occurred in the upper portion of the oviduct, and if 
the blood is on the outer shell membrane or shell it has occurred 
in the vagina. The most common location is on the surface of 
the yolk and occurs from some capillary at the point of rupture 
of the ovarian capsule. 

DWARF EGGS 

Dwarf eggs of fowls vary greatly in size and shape. There are 
two distinct types: First, prolate spheroidal shape, similar to the 
normal egg; and second, the cylindrical type. 

In one study of 27 flocks consisting of 579 birds there were pro- 
duced in the twelve months 45,055 eggs of which there were 40 
dwarf eggs. This is 0.00088 per cent, or one dwarf egg in every 
1,127 eggs laid. It has also been observed that these small eggs 
may be developed at any time throughout the hens laying period. 
Trap nest records have shown that a normal egg may be laid on 
days immediately before and after these dwarf eggs. 



DISEASES OF OVARY AND OVIDUCT 229 

The internal structure of the dwarf egg varies in its makeup. 
Some dwarf eggs contain a small yolk surrounded by a membrane, 
others a small quantity of yolk without a yolk membrane, and still 
others no yolk. When yolks are present usually there is no ger- 
minal disc. 

The albumin in the dwarf eggs differs in density. It may be 
dense and appearing like that of a normal egg. There is also found 
all gradations between these two extremes. The tendency is to a 
density greater than normal. 

The size of the dwarf egg is apparently related to the size of the 
nucleus which by its presence gives stimulus to albumin secretion. 

A bird may suffer a disturbance in her physiological functions of 
reproduction, and produce dwarf eggs since normal eggs are pro- 




FiG. 82. Three Dwarf Eggs and the Cause of Their Formation. 
1, blood clot causing dwarf egg No. 4; 2, a mass of inspissated albumin causing 
dwarf egg No. 5; 3, a small piece of chalazae causing dwarf egg No. 6. 



duced before and after dwarf egg formation and the cause of such 
dwarf egg production is of a temporary character. Dwarf egg 
production appears in both pullets and old hens and occur at any 
time during the laying period, but most often in the spring or early 
summer, perhaps because the bulk of the eggs are laid at this time 
of year. 

The yolk of an egg constitutes, on an average, 24.37 per cent of 
the weight of the egg. and 33.91 per cent of double yolked eggs and 
35.52 per cent of triple yolked eggs. 

The shape of the egg is determined by the action of the circular 
and longitudinal muscular fibers of the oviduct wall. 

The egg being a semifluid body has a tendency when free, to 
assume a globular shape, but at the time of the formation of the 
membrane it is larger than the oviduct lumen, hence there is a 
tendency under pressure exerted by the oviduct as this is the line 
of least resistance. 

The degree of pressure will depend upon the size of the egg and 
the tonicity of the muscular coats of the oviduct. 

The exact length as compared to the breadth will depend upon 
the tonus of the circular and longitudinal fibers. A strong tonus 
of the circular fibers and weak longitudinal fibers may greatly alter 
the normal shape of the egg. The two sets of muscles are in- 
dependent in their action. 



230 POULTRY DISEASES 

EPIORNITHOLOGIC ABORTION IN BIRDS 

Under this head, there have been mentioned by severil 
wnters an affection in birds in which the eggs were expelled 
fron, the ov.duct before the formation of the shell had taken 
place We nave noted this in flocks when crushed oyster hells 
were kept constantly before the hens, so that it could not have 
heen a ack o hn,e salts. The question arises there \nv 
connection „i the train of causes in bird an.l nrmma ' ? ^ 



CHAPTER XI 

GENERAL DISEASES 

PURULENT INFLAMMATION OF THE ABDOMEN 

Purulent inflammation of the abdomen is a suppurative 
inflammation of the peritoneum or lining membrane of the 
abdominal cavity and is accompanied with pus formation. This 
condition is frequently met with in laying hens two years or 
more of age. It is usually due to a noninfective agent. Strep- 
tococcic infections have been observed as well as a bacillus. 

Symptoms. — The unfeathered portion of the head is usually 
normal although it may become purplish-red at death. There, 
at this time, also may be noted a slimy mucus in the mouth. 
The bird may become thin in weight. There may be a dullness 




Fig. 83. A Microscopic Field Showing Pus Cells and Chains of Strepto- 
cocci, Causing Purulent Peritonitis of a Hen. 



232 



POULTRY DISEASES 



for several days before death. Laying hens finally cease laying 
and the comb begins to shrink, becomes pale, and covered with 
more or less scale as is the case when hens pass from a laying 
to a nonlaying period. 

Posfiiwrtcm Findings. — The liver may appear dark in color, but 
usually normal in size. The gall bladder may be full of bile. The 
peritoneal surface is more or less roughened and there is spread 
over the lining and intestines a purulent material which when it 
accumulates in considerable quantities may be more or less cheesy 
in nature. The spleen is usually normal in size. The intestines 
appear normal except for the above described condition. A small 
amount of food and gas may be observed in the intestines. The 
pancreas is normal. The kidneys may appear, on sectioned surface, 
a light mottled gray, and more or less swollen, indicating conges- 
tion and possibly more or less degenerative changes due to the 
toxic products absorbed from the abdominal cavity. Parenchy- 
matous nephritis may be present under which conditions there is 
usually more or less changes in other parenchymatous organs as 
the liver. The kidneys, on section, may appear clogged with the 
pasty urinary sediment. Areas here and there may show localized 
nephritis as evidenced by the area being packed with cells of inflam- 
mation. The ureters are also clogged with the pasty urine. The ovary 
is inactive. _ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' i ' ■*] 

Microscopic Examination. — A microscopic examination of the 
ureter content, in many cases, has shown besides the normal sodium 
urate crystals pus cells consisting of both mononuclear and poly- 
morphonuclear cells. The milky fluid consisting of pus cells, Hquor 
puris, detritis, and causative germs, may consist of five or more 
cubic centimeters. The microscopic examination of the liver and 
especially of the kidneys may show both active and passive con- 
gestion, with cloudy swelling, and possibly areas of focal necrosis. 




l-'io. 84. PuRULKNT Inflammation of the Right Abdominal Air Sac of a S. C 
White Leghorn Hen, 2 Years Olu. 

1, sectioned surface of the lung; 2, the diaphragm; 3, ovary in a quiescent 
state; 4, oviduct in a quiescent state; 5, wall of right abdominal air sac \n state 
of purulent inflammation; 6, a point through which the abscess sacculates by the 
air sac extension which' surrounds the hip joint. 



GENERAL DISEASES 233 

PURULENT INFLAMMATION OF THE AIR SACS 

Purulent inflammation of the air sacs may occur and may 
be due to nonspecific germs. 

Symptoms. — There are no definite symptoms before death. 
The symptoms are those common to many maladies of birds 
such as a progressive dullness, more or less loss of flesh, slug- 
gishness toward the end, and loss of appetite and finally death. 

Postmortem Findings. — At autopsy the air sac appears as a large 
tumor and fluctuates upon palpation or handlin.a:. The wall is 
thickened and when opened usually contains a liquid whitish in 
color and occasionally a flocculent material. Fig. 84 gives a photo- 
graph of a typical case involving the right abdominal air sac. 

CONTAGIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE AIR SACS 

IN GEESE 

This is an infectious or contagious disease caused by a slen- 
der bacillus, and is confined exclusively to geese. 

Symptoms. — The goose is weak, staggery gait, great depres- 
sion, difificulty in rising, kicks at his head, accelerated breath- 
ing, snoring sounds and opening the mouth. Death usually 
follows in from six to eight days. 

Postmortem Findings. — The air sacs appear yellowish in color. 
The inner surface of the air sacs are covered with a fibrinous ma- 
terial. Similar deposits may also be observed on the serous surfaces 
of the liver, spleen, intestines, and peritoneum. 

ABSCESS OF THE FOOT 

Suppurative processes resulting in abscess of the foot are 
common in the fowl. One form of injury resulting in abscess 
is due to thorns as from Russian thistles, or hedge, cacti, or 
similar structures. The thorn penetrates the soft parts between 
the toes as shown in Fig. 86. In this case A represents the hole 
or opening through which the cheesy pus was removed by aid 
of a curette. 

Another form of injury and pus formation is that observed 
in the heavy laying more delicate breeds as the Single Comb 
White Leghorns in the latter part of the summer or early fall. 
This form of abscess of the feet is usually found in heavy 
laying hens in the latter part of the summer when the long 
months of laying have reduced, to a certain extent, their 
vitality. This form of abscess of the feet is found to a less 
extent in the heavier breeds as Rhode Island Reds and 
Plymouth Rocks. Bruising of the soles of the feet, as jumping 
from a high perch pole to hard floors, favors abscess forma- 
tion when the pus producing germs are present. In all these 
abscesses the pus is of a cheesy nature. 

Symptoms. — The bird is noted to limp, the ball of the 
afTected foot is swollen, and as the suppurative process prog- 



234 



POULTRY DISEASES 



resses ulceration of the under surface of the foot is evident. 
There may appear a black piece of dead tissue and cheesy pus. 
In such abscesses and other suppurative processes as injury 






Fig. 85. A Foot I'roperly Bandaged. 
Note that the bandage is passed diagonally across the ball of the' foot and 
between the toes. 

due to spirolettes, etc., the pus germ, staphylococcus pyogenes 
aureus has been isolated. 

Treatment. — Lance the abscess and curette out or scrape out 
with a dull knife, the cheesy pus. I^^ollow by swabbing out the 
wound with pure tincture of iodine. It is best to then bandage 
with a one inch bandage as shown in Fig. 85. The wound must 
be dressed each day, and as the pus will not be thin and drain- 



GENERAL DISEASES 



235 



age impossible, the accumulating pus must be carefully 
removed with a swab in such a manner to not injure the 
granulation tissue. 




Fig. 86. Abscess Caused by a Russian Thistle 
Thorn. 

a, opening through which the cheesy pus was 
i-emoved. 

After treatment of the foot, place the bird in a clean, dry 
place, preferably on straw, so as to keep dirt out of the sore. 

After the foot has healed it will be found to be somewhat 
larger than normal. The sole of the foot will be somewhat 
tender for a while, and to prevent rebruising and reformation 
of an abscess it is well to place a leather pad on the sole of 
the foot as illustrated in Fig. 87. 

DRY GANGRENE OF THE FEET OF CHICKS 

A condition of dry gangrene of the feet has been described 
occurring mostly during the first month of the chick's life 
though it has been reported in older birds. It occurs in the 
prairie regions of the west wherever the virgin sod is still 
unbroken. 

Symptoins. — The first sign in the baby chick is that it lags 
behind the balance of the flock, there are blisters on the feet, 
some have ruptured. A scab has appeared at the seat of the 
blister. These scabs are now seen between the toes, on their 



236 



POULTRY DISEASES 




Fig. 87. Crooked Toe and Its Remedy. 

To the left is the crooked toe. a, the pad. b, the pad adjusted. This pad can 
also be used on birds just recovering from abscess of the foot. 

top, and up the leg. The foot may be swollen and tender to 
the touch. The chicken sits down much of the time. Toes may 
drop off or if recovery takes place the toes are distorted. These 
same conditions may attack the head. The disease may prove 
fatal in from one to two days to that many weeks. Mortality 
may reach 90 per cent. The feet become somewhat shrivelled 
or appear "dried up." The toes may become crooked and 
finally dry gangrene and death of the young bird result. These 
conditions have been produced artificially by allowing the 
chicks to run over cacti thorns. The thorns entering the tender 
skin of the chicks causing blisters and sores. 

Treatment. — Dip the feet and affected parts in kerosene. As 
a preventive it is advisable to rear the chicks on ploughed 
ground. 

PERICARDITIS 

Pericarditis is an inflammation of the pericardium or heart 
sac ; there is usually a sero-fibrinous effusion about the heart, 
and it is often spoken of as dropsy of the heart sac or dropsy 
of the heart. It is, of course, not strictly a blood disease, but 
it is often associated with diseases of the blood and of the 
lungs, as a complication ; further than this its cause is not 
known, but may result from exposure to cold and dampness. 
It may be a complication of fowl cholera, of acute tuberculous 
origin, or pneumo-pericarditis, the latter an extension of the 
inflammation from the lung structures to the pericardium. 
Purulent pericarditis is also cjuite frequently observed in the 
fowl. Verrucose pericarditis has been observed. 

Symptoms. — A diagnosis of pericarditis cannot ordinarily 
be made during life of the bird, but is easily demonstrated on 
autopsy. Among the symptoms are intense dyspnoea or very 



GENERAL DISEASES 237 

difficult breathing, the beak being held wide open. Tumultous 
heart action, extreme exhaustion on exercise may exist. The 
bird may fall if forced to move and death may occur from 
syncope, or heart failure. There may be a degeneration of the 
heart muscle and possibly of the pericardium. 

Treatment. — Treatment is unsatisfactory ; numerous cases 
occurring in the same flock should lead to the enforcement of 
better hygienic conditions, especially to better protection from 
cold and dampness. 

ENDOCARDITIS 

Endocarditis is an inflammation of the lining membrane of 
the heart, usually affecting the valves. Nothing is known of 
its cause, but it is of not infrecjuent occurrence during the 
course of certain diseases of the blood. It cannot be diagnosed 
during life, and therefore cannot be treated. From what we 
know of the cause of endocarditis in man and animals, we 
should expect exposure to cold and dampness to be a factor in 
the cause of this disease, and such conditions are to be 
avoided. Verrucose pericarditis has been found. The nodules 
form in a line or in an irregular manner in the vicinity of the 
valves. These nodules may become so large that they inter- 
fere with the action of the valves and a regurgitation of the 
blood results. 

Chronic endocarditis is often observed. In old birds calci- 
fication of the aortic walls has been observed. 

MYOCARDITIS 

Myocarditis is an inflammation of the heart muscle and may 
be either acute or chronic, local or diffuse. Primary types may 
occur but it is probably nearly always secondary to some other 
affection. Both acute nonsuppurative and acute parenchyma- 
tous myocarditis may occur in fowls. Acute suppurative 
parenchymatous myocarditis has been observed and studied in 
these laboratories. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms, as we have observed them, are 
general depression with possibly a partial loss of appetite and 
gradual emaciation. The head and external appearance show 
no specific sign of the disease except for the unkempt appear- 
ance of the feathers. The comb may be dark and dried indi- 
cating that the bird is not in a laying condition. 

Postmortem Findings. — The heart may be noted to be enlarged 
and the whole mass present a parboiled appearance. Upon opening 
the pericardium or pericardial sac it is noted to contain a small 
quantity of purulent material. The pericardium is thickened and 
the inner wall is rough as well as the outer surface of the heart. 



238 



POULTRY DISEASES 



In sectioning the heart the heart muscle is noted to contain whitish 
areas not unhke neoplasms. 

In these cases the liver may be enlarged, in fact sometimes it is 
three or four times its normal size. The outer capsule appears 
thickened, congested, and possibly hepatitis may be present. 

The kidneys may be light gray in color, in fact mottled. Neph- 
ritis may be present. 

Microscopic Examination. — The pericardial wall is thickened due 
to the infiltration of inflammation cells. 

In some areas the heart muscle cells are losing their cross stria- 
tions and further along these cross striations entirely disappear. 




Fig. 88. Purulent Myocarditis of a Single Comb White Leghorn Hen. 
a, heart muscle structure; b, heart muscle fiber separated by masses of infiam- 
mation cells; c, a small abscess of the heart wall. 



In these latter parts there is a cellular invasion in some areas these 
cells have pushed, in groups, between the bundles of the muscle 
fibers, as seen in Fig. 88. In still other places small focal abscesses 
have formed. 

In suppurative myocarditis there may also be present in the kid- 



GENERAL DISEASES 239 

neys both active and passive congestion, cloudy swelling, and ob- 
literation of the lumen of the convoluted tubules. Focal areas of 
inflammation and acute parenchymatous nephritis may be present. 
The same conditions may exist in the liver. 

HYPERTROPHY AND HYPERPLASIA 

Hypertrophy literally means excessive nutrition. By usage 
the term has come to mean an abnormal increase in the size of 
an organ or part. In a more restricted sense it is used to mean 
an abnormal increase in the size of the essential cells of the 
part. 

Hypertrophy of the heart has been thought to be caused by 
obstruction of the circulation due to tuberculous grov^ths in the 
liver or mesentery and also a sequel of gout and rheumatism. 
It is observed in both fowls and cage birds. 

HYPERPLASIA OF THE INTESTINES 

Hyperplasia indicates excessive formation and should be 
used to designate the condition resulting from an abnormal in- 
creased size of the part due to an increase in the number of 
cells of that part. Hyperplasia may be due to an increased 
number of parenchymatous cells, or an increased number of 
interstitial cells. Interstitial hyperplasia is the more common 
form and is usually a sequel of chronic inflammation. It is 
supposed to be caused by long continued action of mild irri- 
tants. 

Parenchymatous hyperplastic structures vary in appearance 
according to the amount of hyperplastic connective tissue. The 
part may vary from normal to dense, hard, pale irregularly 
lobulated masses of fibrous tissue. 

Intestinal hyperplasia is often noted and in Fig. 89 is shown 
a drawing of caecal hyperplasia of a two-year-old Silver Pen- 
ciled Wyandotte cock. 

Symptoms. — The bird does not do well for some time before 
death and gradually becomes thin in flesh. There may be more 
or less loss of appetite. 

Postmortem Findings. — Upon examination of the abdominal or- 
gans the hyperplastic intestine will appear to be enlarged and when cut 
through the walls will be observed to be greatly thickened. In the 
case shown in Figure 89 the walls were three millimeters in diameter. 
The lumen was very small and the entire portion of each of the caeca 
was uni formally involved. 

The accompanying drawings show the relative thickness of the 
walls as compared to those of a normal caecum. These two draw- 
ings are made natural size. It will be seen that there is a uniform 
increase in the cellular structure of the external longitudinal and 
inner muscular coats, as well as of the mucosa and submucosa. In 
the last drawing there is illustrated a composite drawing of the 
various kinds of cellular elements. There will be noted the normal 



240 



POULTRY DISEASES 



muscle cells, connective tissue cells, mononuclear leucocytes that 
have invaded, to some extent, these parts. There are also numerous 
coccidia in the various stages of development. These coccidia 
were observed invading the surface epithelial cells and in clusters 
in the subendothelial spaces, that is, between the muscles in the 
connective tissue spaces. There appeared to be a moderate num- 
ber of them. There was no indication of necrosis in any part 
microscopically examined. 

There is a possibility that these coccidia furnished the mild irri- 
tation causing this hyperplastic condition. 







MitWf- ' fir' • ' #^.#^'' 



^:^^ 



"^i^ 



c 

^^ ■i'lOX 



, f: ;,Ti /Si^^-^^—fT. ai A 









Fig. 89. IIypekplasia of the Caecum of a Cock. 

a, a tranverse section through the caecum showing at 1: the mucous mem- 
brane; 2, the muscular layers; 3, the serous covering, b, same of a normal 
caecum, c, a drawing of a higher magnification of the transverse section of the 
hyperplasia showing relative thickness of the various coats; 1, serous membrane; 
2, outer longitudinal muscular coat; 3, inner circular muscular coat; 4, muscularis 
mucosa; 5, the mucous membrane, d, a composite drawing from the mucosa; 1, 
schizont; 2, oocyst; 3, sporoblast; 4, connective tissue cell; 5, sporozoit; 6, epi- 
thelial cell; 7, epithelial cell just invaded by a spore. 




Fig. 90. Productive Inflammation of the Shank of a S. C. Rhode Island 

Red Cock. 



GENERAL DISEASES 



241 



PRODUCTIVE INFLAMMATION OF THE SOFT STRUC- 
TURES OF THE SHANKS AND COMB OF FOWLS 

A productive inflammation of the shanks or of the comb may 
be observed in both cocks and hens over two years of age. 

Symptoms. — The shanks or comb afifected gradually becomes 
larger due to new formed connective tissue and the condition 
is apparently brought about without any signs of acute inflam- 
mation. The increasing enlargement is of the soft structures 
alone, the bony structures, in these cases, not being involved. 
The condition, as affecting the shanks, is more common in cocks 
than in hens. The bird may later have a stiff gait, and as the 
enlargement progresses the iDird finally becomes lame, and unfit 
as a breeder and later dies. In some of these cases there is also 
observed, by microscopic study, nephritis and other changes of 
the parenchymatous organs. Fig. 90 shows a photograph of a 
typical case affecting the shanks of an S. C. Rhode Island Red 
cock. 

RUPTURE OF THE HEART AND LARGE BLOOD VESSELS 

Internal hemorrhage, or bleeding, due to rupture of the heart 
or large blood vessels is common in overfed fowls. It may 
be caused by any excitement or overexertion in such birds. 

Symptoms. — There is a sudden blanching of the comb, wat- 
tles, face, and mucous membranes followed by great weakness, 
coma or unconsciousness and death. No treatment is prac- 
ticable. 



^4 








^^^^^ 


/ 

B 



¥iG. 91. Thrombosis in a Hen. 
a, pelvic bone, central portion ; b, muscle of 
thigh; c, blood vessel containing a white 
thrombus. 



242 



POULTRY DISEASES 



THROMBOSIS 

Thrombosis is a blood clot in a vessel during life of the bird. 
This clot forms a solid mass consisting of fibrin, red blood cells, 
and thrombocytes and leucocytes. 

Agony thrombi are those clots formed during slow death and 
may extend from the heart to many of the ramifying blood 
vessels. They are mostly white in color. 

Thrombi have been studied in birds Fig. 91 showing a pho- 
tograph of such a case. 

Symptoms. — There is a partial loss of appetite, finally com- 

])lete loss; the ]nvd shows weakness and a gradual emaciation. 

The hen dies in about two or three weeks. 

Postmortem Findings. — On autopsy there will be noted great 
emaciation. All organs appearing normal except the affected cir- 
culatory system. In the case of the specimen shown in Fig. 91 
there was a complete plugging of the right brachial artery, the 
artery to the right wing, and the same of the large vessel of the 
liver, as well as of the iliac and femoral arteries of the left side and 
leg. Upon microscopic examination there was observed a white 
thrombus. The picture shows the blood vessels quite distended by 
the thrombi. 

GANGRENE 

Gangrene is death of a part. There are two kinds of 
gangrene, moist and dry. Death of a part en masse constitutes 
gangrene and death cell by cell, if on the surface, constitutes 
ulceration. If the part which dies has poured out in it serum, 
or it is in fatty tissue, or if the dead part becomes infected the 





Fig. 92. Gangrene of the Foot of a Turkey. 

Commenced witli fluctuating abscess between 
the toes which' wlicn hinced gave off an offensive 
odor and appeared somewhat gaseous. Later the 
parts became in a state of dry gangrene. ' A 
smear from tlic i)us showed many eosinophilcs, 
lymithpcytcs and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. 



GENERAL DISEASES 243 

condition will be that of moist gangrene. Certain kinds of gas 
forming organisms will cause an emphysematous or gasseous 
gangrene. If the part is poorly supplied with blood and there 
is no serum brought there dry gangrene may result. The part 
dries and shrinks in size and does not give off an offensive 
odor. Dry gangrene is likely to occur in dependent parts, as in 
the illustration, in the turkey's foot. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE OIL GLAND 

In the fowl there are no oil glands or sweat glands in con- 
nection with the feathers. This is compensated for by an oil 
gland located in the posterior dorsal region of the abdomen and 
at the base of the tail. The bird obtains the oil with its beak 
and stripping each feather seperately oils them. 

Inflammation of this double lobulated tubular gland often 
occurs. The region of the gland becomes swollen, red, and 
painful to the touch. Miscroscopic examination shows a true 
acute inflammation. The ducts are occluded and the bird suf- 
fers considerable pain. Hot applications are indicated. If pos- 
sible by massage relieve the distended oil gland by pressing out 
the oil. 

SWELL-HEAD IN YOUNG TURKEYS 

The most characteristic symptoms of this ailment is swelling 
of certain parts of the head, especially in the region of the in- 
fraorbital sinus, which becomes filled with a gelatinous sub- 
stance. 

There has been isolated from these swellings a bacillus. 

These swellings may disappear in a few days or weeks or 
they may remain for several months. In the latter instance 
the swelling may contain a cheesy foul smelling material, and 
in some cases they may cause death. 

Treatment. — Open the swelling with a sharp knife and al- 
low the gelatinous material to escape. In addition swab the 
cavity with pure tincture of iodine. 

POX OF TURKEYS 

A condition among turkeys has been described which ap- 
parently differs from chicken pox. It is, in some years, quite 
common in the southern states and in Cuba. 

The condition was first observed by the writer in turkeys 
that had been kept in the back lot of a city residence. 
There were four turkeys in the flock and one after the other 
became aifected. 

From the standpoint of a field study it appears to be con- 
tagious. 



244 POULTRY DISEASES 

The ])0x are noted on the un feathered portion of the head 
and neck. There is at first noted a small pimple-like elevation, 
which gradually becomes larger and in the course of a few 
days may appear four or even five millimeters in diameter and 
two or three millimeters in elevation. They do not appear as 
in the case of chicken pox ; that is, they have no rounded bleb- 
like appearance, but have almost perpendicular w^alls, with flat 
tops, and are shaped like an opera hat. 

In the course of a few days, in many cases without any 

treatment the diseased areas become dry and when healed the 

side walls may be picked ofif, leaving a whitish, scar-like spot. 

The disease usually does not appear very virulent and little 

or no treatment is required. In some cases where we have 

advised the use of a five per cent carbolised vaseline, excellent 

results have been reported. Again, where we have had cases 

under observation, they recover without treatment. However, 

there can be little doubt but that at times the attacks are 

rather severe and may even cause death. While this has been 

reported to us from good, reliable sources, yet we have not 

personally made such observations. The cases studied did not 

appear as causing great suffering of the birds, as there was no 

loss of appetite and the birds were in good flesh. 

Only one test was made to determine if the disease could be 
transmitted. The curetted material from a fresh nodule was rubbed 
in a scarified area of the comb of a three-year-old White Orpington 
cock. The results of this one test were negative. No opportunity 
was afforded to conduct experiments upon birds not exposed to the 
disease, though such procedure is contemplated. 

DIPHTHERITIC INFLAMMATION OF THE EYES 

OF DUCKS 

A diphtheritic inflammation in which there is formed a mem- 
brane over the affected part with destruction of the under- 
lying cells occurs in ducks. In the diphtheritic inflammation of 
the eyes of ducks there is first noticed an itching of the eyes 
manifested by the duck rubbing them. There is noted later 
an inflammation of the conjunctival mucous membrane lining 
the eye. This membrane becomes thick, red, and there is 
noted a yellowish secretion. Diphtheritic areas may develop 
with ulceration of the cornea or front part of the eyeball. The 
discharge from the eye is caustic to the skin with which it may 
come in contact. The ducks become emaciated. The disease 
may last for several weeks. There appears to be no marked 
changes in the internal organs. 

ULCERATION OF THE CORNEA 

Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane 
lining the front part of the eyeball. Ulceration is death of a 



GENERAL DISEASES 



245 



part, cell by cell, and is always on a surface. At times this 
inflammation spreads to the cornea or front part of the eye- 
ball. The inflamed cornea becomes cloudy and finally may 
totally obstruct the sight. There is frequently observed in 
connection with this an ulceration of the cornea with perfora- 
tion of the eyeball. Fig. 93 is a photograph of ulceration of 
the cornea with perforation of the anterior chamber in a 
Single Comb Rhode Island Red chick which had developed 
conjunctivitis and keratitis when only three weeks of age. 
This condition is common in small chicks. 




.■:■' ■■/ ■ 



Fig. 93. Ulceration of the Cornea With Hemorrhage Into the 

Anterior, Posterior and Vitreous Chambers in a 

Three-Weeks-Old Chick. 



The eye was enucleated, hardened in 40 per cent formalde- 
hyde solution and sectioned for study. It was observed that 
there was an inflammation with hemorrhage of the entire eye- 
ball — a pan-hemorrhagic condition. 

Ulceration of the cornea is also sometimes observed in con- 
junction with the eye type roup. There is an intense con- 
junctivitis, an accumulation of qtiantities of purulent or ca- 
tarrhal products in the conjunctival sac and a keratitis and 
later panophthalmia or an inflammation of the entire eyeball. 

FROZEN COMB 

The degree of cold at which the comb and wattles freeze de- 
pends upon many factors. The humidity in the house and the 
physical condition of the bird and its heart action are the 
most important factors. A weak heart means a sluggish cir- 
culation and the more sluggish the blood flows the slower it 
passes through the dependent parts and the quicker the comb 
freezes. 



246 POULTRY DISEASES 

Wattles usually freeze more readily than combs because 
when the bird drinks it usually gets its wattles wet. 

Birds in open front houses can stand lower temperatures 
than when the house is tightly closed, because the more free 
circulation of air allows the watery vapor from the lungs of 
the birds to disseminate more rapidly and humidity is lessened. 

When wattles and comb are frozen, remove the bird to a 
warmer room but not one heated by a stove. Apply carbolised 
vaseline twice a day. 

BROKEN BEAKS 

The beak often becomes broken through fighting through a 
wire fence or by other violence. Such a fowl needs attention. 
It may starve through its inability to pick up feed or its beak 
may grow deformed. 

The bird should be given feed in such a manner that it can 
easily pick it up, or the new and developing horny material 
may become injured. Mash, both wet and dry, given in a cup, 
is recommended. The cup should not be allowed to become 
so nearly empty that the bird strikes the bottom with its 
broken beak. 

Often chicks are hatched w^th cross beaks, making the act 
of taking up feed a difficult one. 

ARTHRITIS-TERMINATING IN OSTEITIS OF THE 
FEMORO-TIBIAL JOINT OF THE COCK 

Quite often wdien cocks fight through a wire netting fence 
there results injuries to the hock or femoro-tibial joint or both. 
This results in inflammatory changes in both the soft and bony 
structures, a chronic osteitis. There may result infection of 
the injured part. Acute inflammation with or without pus 
formation may result. 

The early changes are congestion and exudation in the 
synovial membrane, congestion and exudation in the marrow 
spaces with widening of these, and degeneration of the articu- 
lar cartilage. These changes may take place at the same time 
or they may occur separately. The process may become quies- 
cent at various stages. 

A traumatic injury may cause an ossifying periostitis which 
may later spread lo the synovial membranes and then to the 
joint. 

Symptoms. — In a fight with a cock in an opposite pen the 
bird injuring the femoro-tibial or other joints will be noted to 
ho. lame. He will not tred hens and is of no further use as a 
breeder. The bird will be continuously lame when such proc- 
esses as a rarefying ostitis occur and after several months will 



GENERAL DISEASES 247 

die. The bird may retain a fairly good appetite but may grad- 
ually lose flesh. The joint will appear enlarged as a result of 
the chronic inflammatory processes. Fig. 94 shows the results 
of a chronic ostitis of the femoro-tibial articulation in a state 
of chronic inflammation. The bird died after eight months. 





Fig. 94. Ostitis of the Femoro-Tibi.^l Articul..\tion of a Cock. 

1, distal e.xtrtir.ity of the femur; 2, proximal tnd of the tibia; 3, proximal tnd 
of the fibula; 4, the patella. 

OPEN JOINTS IN FOWLS 

The joint of the fowl, like that of mammals, consist of the 
articular surfaces of two or more bones making up the joint, 
and a capsular ligament lined with a synovial membrane. The 
articular ends of the bones are covered with a hyaline carti- 
lage. The joint synovial membrane secrets a serous fluid 
which lubricates the joint to prevent friction during move- 
ment of one bone on the other. When the membrane is opened 
die fluid escapes and air enters the joint cavity, causing much 
pain to the individual. Movement of the joint is impaired, 
and, in fact, becomes impossible for the bird to bear the weight 
of the body upon the injured leg. The constant escape of 
synovial fluid prevents complete healing of the punctured or 
lacerated wound and a fistula results. Following this, is a 
result of a chronic inflammation, the joint becomes enlarged, 
and the patient becomes thin in flesh from constant pain and 
finally dies or has to be destroyed for humane reasons. 
Chronic inflammation which often extends to and involves the 
bone may result. Rarefying ostitis has been observed in such 
cases of several months standing. Upon examining the ends 
of the bones a rarefying ostitis, as shown in Fig. 94, is 
observed. 



CHAPTER XII 

TUMORS 

The word tumor, which means swelHng, has been variously 
ap})Hed in medical and veterinary literature. Some writers 
include among the tumors cellular collections clearly inflam- 
matory in origin ; to eacli aggregation of cells is given the name 
inflammatory tumors, granulation tumors, etc. Later writers 
exclude all such masses and restrict the term tumor to ; first, 
neoplasms or new growth of tissue developing independently 
in any tissue of the animal body and atypical structures in 
function, and, cysts. 

Tumors of various kinds afifect birds, but are less common 
than in higher animal Hfe. There is almost no literature on the 
subject. 

The Maine Experiment Station reported, through the Journal of 

Agricultural Research, the results of several hundreds of autopsies. 

It was observed that of 880 birds autopsied 79, or 8.96 per cent had 

tumors; that is, there were 90 cases of tumors per 1,000 birds. 

There was no significant difference in frequency of occurrence 
of tumors between birds that died from natural causes and ap- 
parently normal birds that were killed. 

There was a significant correlation between age and the occur- 
rence of tumors. Only 1 SI per cent of the birds under two and 
one-half years of age had tumors, v/hile tumors were present in 
19.17 per cent of those that were over that age. 

In birds which have died from natural causes, with tumors, the 
tumors were the probable cause of death in from one-third to one- 
half of the cases. 

There was a tendency to the association of hypertrophied liver, 
spleen, or kidneys, with the presence of tumors in other organs. 

Death often resulted from internal hemorrhage from the tumors, 
the underlying tissue, or the hypertrophied liver or spleen. 

The tumors can be classified into cystic and tissue tumors ; 
22.78 per cent, of the tumors are cystic and 74.68 per cent, are 
of solid tissue structure. There are two cases of tissue tumors 
to which cysts are attached. 

In the females the organs most frequently afifected are the 
genital organs ; 37.76 per cent, of all tumors are in the ovary 
and 18.36 per cent, are in the oviduct and oviduct ligament. 

In most cases the tumors are confined to one organ. In 
fifteen cases, however, in these studies the tumor had evidently 
undergone metastasis, since tumors of similar nature occurred 
in from two to four organs. 



250 POULTRY DISEASES 

CLASSIFICATION OF TUMORS 

Tumors are of two kinds; first, benign; and second, nialiy- 
nant. 

A benign tumor is one that does not necessarily involve 
danger to life, while the malignant tumor, if undisturbed will 
eventually prove fatal. 

The benign or so called innocent tumor may cause death of 
the birds from its location, as for example, a fibrous tumor 
growing on the inside of the skull. 

Tumors are composed of cells and usually, an intercellular 
substance. The cells may be similar to normal embryonic cells 
or to adult cells. The embryonic tumor cells differ from nor- 
mal embryonic cells in that the former ha^'e no tendency to 
become matured while the latter have. 

Tumors having a n:esodermal origin usually have an inter- 
cellular suljstance closely resembling that of normal connective 
tissue and hence may be mucous, fibrous, cartilaginous, or osse- 
ous. Tumors of an ectodermal or an entodermal origin may 
appropriate the pre-existing tissue framework for their stroma. 
Some tumors, like some normal tissue, are practically devoid 
of intercellular substance. Anatomically the intercellular sub- 
stance or stroma is an integral part of a tumor and its function 
corresponds to the function of intercellular substance of nor- 
mal tissue. The cells and intercellular substance of tumors 
may be so arranged that the resulting structure approximates 
that of normal tissue, but is never identical to a normal tissue. 
Tumors may be composed of structures derived from all three 
germ layers grouped indiscriminately but having some resem- 
blance to an embryo — teratoid tumors. 

Like normal tissue, tumors are usually nourished, by blood 
and lymph. The blood and lymph vessels may be structurally 
the same as normal vessels, or they may be composed entirely 
of tumor cells. The vessels have their origin from pre-existing 
vessels in the tissue from which the tumors are developed. 

The form of tumors is largely determined by the location and 
the kind of tissue in which they occur. They may be spherical, 
ovoid, ellipsoid, nodular, miliary, tubercular fungoid, polypoid, 
ta1)ular, elongated, cylindrical, etc. Where there is no resist- 
ance there is a tendency to be round or spheroid. In outline 
they may be regular or irregular, smooth, nodular, or even 
granular and in some cases the exact outline cannot be deter- 
mined. 

The color of the tumor depends upon ; first, the kind of tis- 
sue composing it ; second, j^igmentation ; third, degeneration ; 
and fourth, the amount of blood they contain. 

In consistency some tumors are soft and spongy, jelly-like, 



TUMORS 



251 



and from this type there are all variations up to that of a hard 
and resistant tumor consisting of bone formation. The con- 
sistency depends upon the kind of tissue composing them. 

As to number tumors may be single, that is, only one occur- 
ring in the bird's body. Most single tumors are benign and, as 
a rule, do not cause serious trouble. The bird may be afflicted 
by many tumors, in fact, multiple tumors. Tumors may form 
by metastaces, that is, tumor cells may be carried by the blood 
from one malignant tumor and deposited in another part of the 
body and a secondary tumor occur. 

The growth of tumors varies, some growing very slow as in 
most benign kinds, or the growth may be more rapid as in the 
sarcomas — the malignant kind. 

Tumors are subject to the same degenerative changes that 
normal tissues are, such as hemorrhage, necrosis, and degen- 
eration. 

There appears to be no satisfactory method of classifying 
tumors. Tumors have been grouped as follows : 

Occurrence : 

Primary. — The original or first tumor. 

Secondary. — Metastatic tumor. 

Recurrent. — A newly developed tumor at the point from 
which one has been removed. 
Structure : 

Histoid. — Simple tissue tumor. 

Organoid. — Organ-like tumor. 

Teratoid. — Mixture of various tissues resulting in a struc- 
ture resembling an embryo. 
Clinically : 

Benign.— No tendency to kill. 

Malignant. — Having a tendency to kill. 

The following diagramatic scheme shows the general struc- 
ture and relations of the various tumors : 



Tumors - 
1 



Adult 
tissue 



Embryonic 
tissue 



Connective. 



[ Myxoma, Chondroma . 

J Osteoma 

I Lipoma, Glioma 

I Fibroma I papilloma 



Epithelium . . , 

Muscular— Myoma \ Leiomyoma .... 

( Khabdomyoma . . . 

Vascular— Angioma \ Lymphangioma 

Nervous— Neuroma ' hemangioma 

r Round cell 

Connective— Sarcoma J ff^Y^^l ""^^u 

I Myeloid cell 

1^ Endothelioma 

( Carcinoma 

Epithelioma < Adenoma 

(. Epithelioma 



■ a! E 



252 POULTRY DISEASES 

EPITHELIAL TUMORS 

ADULT EPITHELIAL TUMORS 

PAPILLOMA— WARTS 

These growths are formed from the epitheHa of the skin, or 
mucous surfaces. If the wart occurs on the skin it is made 
up of a connective tissue core covered. by stratified squamous 
epitheHa. If they occur on the mucous surface they are rather 
soft while those on the skin surface are hard. 




Fig 95. Papilloma or Wart on the Posterior 

Portion of the Shank of A S. C. Rhode 

Island Red Hen. 

ADENOMA 

An adenoma is a tumor constructed upon the type of a gland. 
Adenomata are of slow growth, and are believed to have their 
origin in some quiescent, congenitally displaced cell. They are 
as a rule completely encapsulated. They are benign. The 
tumor is made up of connective tissue and asini, or cavities, 
lined by columnar or cuboidal cells. They do not have com- 
municating ducts. Such tumors have been observed in the 
fowl, the writer having studied one in the spleen. 

EMBRYONIC EPITHELIAL TUMORS 
CARCINOMA 

Carcinomata or cancers are made up of epithelial cells 
grouped in nests or alveoli. These tumors have no selective 
action for any tissue. They may be observed in any part of the 
body. They are usually diffused, that is, no limiting membrane 
or fibrous capsule as is usually seen in the benign tumors. They 
are malignant spreading into surrounding tissue and their cells 



TUMORS 



253 



being carried by the blood or lymph current and starting sec- 
ondary centers. When cut out they recur. The color of a cut 
section of a carcinoma is usually gray, dirty-white, or pale pink. 
Studies under the miscroscope show them to be made up of 
nests of embryonic epithelial cells surrounded with connective 
tissue. The cells vary in size and shape and may be squamous, 
cylindrical or spherical. The nucleus is usually much smaller 
to the size of the cell than the nucleus of the sarcoma cells. 
True carcinomas do not appear to be common in the fowl. 

EPITHELIOMA 

This type of tumor is the result of an ingrowth of epithelium 
into the underlying structures and has been classed by some as 




Fig. 96. Epithelioma I^'rom tiik Skin Surface of a Hen. 
a, the connective tissue ; b, the epithelial cells. 

a sub-variety of carcinoma. In this variety there is consider- 
able evidence that they are secondary to surface injuries. This 
form of cancer is referred to as skin cancer. It is often ob- 
served in the fowl. 

Contagious epithelioma of young fowls, in which there are 
tumors form, varying in size, from a pea to a large philbert, 
show cells in long nests in true epithelial form. Fig. 96 is a 
typical illustration of a photomicrograph from such a study. 



254 POULTRY DISEASES 

CONNECTIVE-TISSUE TUMORS 

ADULT CONNECTIVE^TISSUE TUMORS 

LIPOMA 

A Lipoma is a fatty tumor and is localized, more or less cir- 
cumscribed, new formation of fat. Lipomata are usually lobu- 
lated, soft, doughy, and elastic. As to shape they are ovoid, 
spheric, or flat. If encapsulated the capsule is very thin. Non- 
encapsulated fatty tumors may be diffused, the margins often 
not being well defined. Lipomata often occur in the fowl. 

CHONDROMA 

Chondromata are masses of new tissue, composed of hyaline, 

elastic, or white fibrous cartilage. Chondromata may develop 

from pre-existing cartilage, such as cartilage from the larynxes, 

or trachea and may assume a poUypoid shape. They may 

develop from bone or in tissue not normally containing this 

element, the cartilaginous tumors are often spoken of as en- 

chondromata. 

Microscopically, the cells of the tumor resemble those of true 
cartilage; the intercellular substance may be hyaline, faintly or 
distinctly fibrous, or, in rare instances, mucoid. They are not as 
a rule composed of dense cartilaginous tissue, but of islands of 
cartilage surrounded by fibrous septa. 

OSTEOMA 

An osteoma is a tumor-like mass of bone developed without 
occurrence of inflammation or incident to the process of re- 
pair; usually such tumors occur at the point of juncture be- 
tween a bone and cartilaginous tissue. The tumor may be 
made up of compact bone tissue or of spongy bone tissue and 
are designated as exostosis, or those growing from the exterior 
of the bone, and, enostosis, or those growing from the interior 
of the bone. They may develop entirely independent of any 
bony or cartilaginous structure. 

Osteomata usually occur singly in the body, that is, they are 
localized. 

New bony growths not attached to the skeleton may be clas- 
sified as follows : Those which have their seat in the perios- 
teum but are separate from the bone are called movable peri- 
osteal exostoses ; those lying near the bone are called periosteal 
osteomata ; those located some distance from the bone, in 
muscle and tendon and disconnected, osteomata ; and those 
situated in other organs, as the lungs, mucous membrane of the 
trachea, the skin or abdominal walls, arc heteroplastic. 

Osteomata may occur either single or multiple. Frequently 
there are found multiple, circumscribed bony growths in great 



TUMORS 



255 



numbers on the bones of the extremities and trunk. The 
favorite seat of these new bony growths appears to be on the 
ends of the bones and the point of insertion of tendons, or 
both may be involved in the same individual and at the same 
time. It is probable that such growths are to be referred to as 






Fig. 97. Osteoma of a Hen Involving Many Parts. 
1, tumor of the leg; 2, tumor of the lumbo-pelvic region; 3, tumor of the elbow; 
4, tumor of the shoulder joint. Note that the most of the bony tumors are at 
the juncture of tht; cartilage and bone. 



inherited predisposition of the part affected to overgrowth, or 
to a disturbance in the development of the skeleton. The bony 
plates and spicules, which in rare cases develop in the lungs or 
in the mucous membrane of the air passages may occur in large 
numbers. Osteomata have been observed in the fowl involving 
many parts in the same individual. 

The development of the bone takes place partly through the 
formation of osteoblasts, and partly through metaplasia of 
formed tissues. The matrix is formed chiefly from the con- 
nective tissue of the periosteum, as well as that of the tissue 



256 POULTRY DISEASES 

from which the osteoma arises ; and also from that of the peri- 
chondrium and endosteum. If an exostosis develops in such a 
manner that cartilage is first formed from the proliferating 
periosteum or bone marrow, and from that cartilage, bone is 
later developed, it is called a cartilaginous exostosis ; when the 
exostosis is formed directly from the proliferating periosteum 
without an intermediate stage of cartilage, it is known as a 
connective tissue exostosis. 

If the connective tissue in a bony tumor is abundant, and in 
fact a predominating substance, it is called an osteofibroma. 
This form of tumor appears quite common among bony 
tumors. 

An abundant of bone in a chondroma leads to the forma- 
tion of an osteochondroma. These latter are usually observed 
in the long bones. 

A condition in which the muscles become bony in nature is 
called myositis ossificans. The tendons of birds and espe- 
cially those of the leg often become ossified, especially in old 
birds. This is also the case in some of the vertebral muscle 
tendons. 

FIBROMA 

Fibromas are tumors composed of wavy bundles of fibrous 
tissue and are observed in the fowl. The skin and subcuta- 
neous areolar tissue is their most frequent location. They 
may also be observed in connection with the visceral organs. 
What few fibroma the waiter has observed in the fowl have 
been small in size. The tumors are usually single, that is, 
one tumor occurring in the individual. They are usually oval in 
shape. It is surrounded by a more or less thick capsule. If 
on the surface they are not difficult to remove. Osteoma, and 
chondroma, are benign. They do not recur when removed. 

In color the sectioned surface appears pearly white with 
grayish white areas. If the fibers lie close together it is called 
a hard fibroma, and if loosely arranged a soft fibroma. 

MYOMA 

A myoma is a tumor composed of muscle tissue. Two 
forms of myoma are recognized, depending upon the kind of 
muscle that the tumor simulates. A tumor composed of non- 
striated muscle-fibre is called a leiomyoma, and, a tumor made 
up of structure simulating striped muscle-fibre is called a 
rhabdomyoma. 

Myomas are not common in the fowd. The leiomyoma is 
found in connection with involuntary muscle structure, wdiile 
the rhabdomyoma are observed in connection with striated 
muscle structure. 



TUMORS 257 

ANGIOMA 

Angioma is a tumor formed of blood vessels and may be 
formed of either blood or lymph vessels. 

Hemangioma is a tumor consisting of blood-vessels bound to- 
gether by a small amount of connective tissue. Some of these 
may be composed of newly formed blood-vessels, while others con- 
sist of more or less altered pre-existing vessels. 

Lymphangioma is a tumor made up dilated lymph-vessels. The 
affected vessels may form distinct caverns or sacs. 

LYMPHOMA 

A lymphoma is a tumor made up of lymph-node tissue. It 
is made up of lymphatic structure. 

MYXOMA 

A myxoma is a tumor made up of mucous tissue, which is 
not, strictly speaking, an adult structure ; it is, at least, the 
lowest grade of adult connective tissue. The tissue may be 
identical with that surrounding the vessels of the umbilical 
cord, and resembles the vitreous humor of the eye. The tumor 
always contains a certain amount of fibrous storma, and may 
resemble an edematous fibroma. In embryonic life myxomat- 
ous tumors are met with in those subcutaneous tissues from 
vv^hich fatty tissue later develops. The sectioned surface of 
the tumor appears like a homogenious, structureless, gelaten- 
ous mass. The majority of the cells present are angular and 
stellate, with long anastamosing prolongations ; others are in- 
distinct, oval, spherical, or fusiform in shape. 

HEMATOMAS 

A hematoma is a blood tumor caused by a hemorrhage into 
a part. Occasionally considerable hemorrhage takes place in 
the ova as they are in process of formation or in those nearing 
degenerative changes. These fail to find their way into the 
oviduct and become hematomas as shown in Fig. 98. 

Exciting causes, like those that cause inflammation and con- 
gestion, are present. A rupture of a small, congested vessel 
causes a clot. Ergot in small doses may be given to combat 
this condition. 

Hemorrhages may take place in other parts of the body so 
that the escaped coagulated blood becomes encapsulated and 
thus a hematoma. 



258 



POULTRY DISEASES 



M 




^ 4 
\ 
\ 



Fig. 98. Hematoma of the Ovary of a Hen (natural size). 
A, diseased ova undergoing caseous degeneration; B, sectioned surface of two 
of the blood tumors. 



TUMORS 259 

SARCOMA 

A sarcoma is a tumor of embryonic connective tissue cells. 
The cells have no tendency to become mature but constantly 
appear as undifferentiated embryonic cells. The sarcoma is 
a malignant type of tumor. They spread into surrounding 
tissue and the cells may be carried by the blood stream or 
lymph current and secondary tumors in other parts of the 
body result. The flesh of birds with sarcoma should not be 
eaten. 

The embryonic cells tend to infiltrate the surrounding tis- 



vt(^ - TB»«W»*»-r*;>^ 



Fig. 99. Spindle-Cell Sarcoma of the Skin of a Buff Orpington Hen. 
The arrows point out some of the numerous tumors. 

sues, as a result of which sarcoma are rarely, if ever, encapsu- 
lated. 

The records of this laboratory show that of 730 autopsies held 
upon hens and cocks ranging in age from twelve months to three 
years, 8, or a trifle over 1 per cent, were affected by generalized 
sarcomatosis. Round cell sarcoma is the most prevalent type, and 
round-cell lympho-sarcoma is frequently observed. 

The sarcoma cells may be of the small, or of the large, round 
cell variety, or they may be of the small, or of the large, spindle 
cell variety. Or small amounts of connective tissue may divide 
the tumor making the cells in nests when it is called an alveolar 
cell sarcoma. Sarcomas quite frequently are found associated 
with other kinds of tumors making compound tumors. 

Sarcomata develop either in previously normal tissue or 
belong to the connective tissue group — as for example, in the 
skin, subcutaneous tissue, intermuscular connective — tissue, 



260 POULTRY DISEASES 

periosteum, spinal cord, meninges, connective tissue of glands, 
and other similar locations. It may also develop in some pre- 
existing connective tissue tumor as in fibroma, myoma, or 
chondroma. Fig. 99 shows a generalised case of alveolar 
sarcoma of the skin of a hen. 

Round cell sarcomas are probably the most common type in 
the fov^l though spindle cell sarcomas are by no means rare. 

Sarcomas have been transplanted, using a portion of the tumor 
and imbedding- it into the breast muscles of another fowl. Thus 
one such successful transplant was made of a spindle cell sarcoma 
of a Brown Leghorn hen to a Barred Plymouth Rock hen. The 
filtrate also produces sarcoma but the tumors do not appear till 
several months after the inoculation of the filtrate. 

COMPOUND TUMORS 

While simple tumors, that is, tumors of but one kind of tis- 
sue, are the prevailing kind in both benign and malignant types, 
yet it is not unusual to find tumors made up of two or more 
kinds of tumor tissue. The tumor cells always resemble some 
normal body cell or cells either adult or in embryonic forma- 
tion. 
CYSTO-LIPO-CHONDRO-OSTEO-ADENO-CARCINOMATA 

A tumor containing distinctly the above six tumor tissues 
was studied in a two-year-old Golden Wyandotte cock. The 
cock, during the breeding season had failed to fertilize the 
eggs of the hens with which he had been running. His appe- 
tite and general appearance remained good, and no serious 
physical condition was noted till shortly before death. 




Fig. 100. CYSTO-LiPO-CHONnRo-OsTEo-ADicNO-C.\KciNOMATA OF A Golden 

Wyandotte Cock. 
1, Cartilage and bony area; 2, fatty tissue; 3, atlcnoniatous and carcinomatous 
zones; 4, cysts; 3, aneurysm. 



TUMORS 261 

Upon opening the abdominal cavity there was noted 100 cc. 
of a straw-colored fluid, and a very large tumor, involving 
the right abdominal air sac. There was also a small tumor on 
the left lobe of the liver. This is a most unusual tumor, both 
in size and in general make-up, that we have ever studied. The 
tumor was placed in a 10 per cent solution of formalin for sev- 
eral days and then sectioned. The tumor measured 15x10x9 
cm., and the sectioned surface indicated a compound tumor. 
Islands of bone surrounded by hyaline cartilage were observed. 
Fatty areas were also present. Cysts, varying in size up to 13 
mm. in diameter and containing a gelatinous substance more 
or less the color of serum were observed throughout the sec- 
tioned surface. Lining these cysts were columnar cells. Here 
and there are whitish areas, which contain more or less con- 
nective tissue and cellular substance, which proved to be car- 
cinomatous areas. At the extreme right hand portion of the 
photograph will be seen a small aneurism, which plainly shows 
the coagulated blood laid down in layers. The photograph 
plainly shows the whole tumor section lacks uniformity in 
appearance, looking as though there were many kinds of tis- 
sues making up the whole tumor mass. Surrounding the whole 
tumor there is a thin fibrous capsule. 

LYMPHO-SARCOMA 

Lympho-sarcomas are quite common in the fowl. Several 
cases have been studied in the heart of fowls. In one case of 
generalized lympho-sarcoma there was contained in the ab- 
dominal cavity about 25 cc. of serum containing considerable 
flocculi. In addition to the tumor masses covering the visceral 




Fig. 101. Lympho-Sarcoma of a S. C. White Leghorn Cock. 
Note among the round cell mass the transverse sections of the lymph vessels. 



262 



POULTRY DISEASES 



organs there was present cloudy swelling of the liver and kid- 
neys. Fig. 101 shows a photomicrograph of a section of the 
lympho-sarcoma. 

Another case of lympho-sarcoma studied was in a S. C. Rhode 
Island Red hen, two years old. The hen had the appearance of 
being in excellent health, except for a slight diarrhea, up to about 
ten days before she was sent to the laboratory. At this time she 




Fig. 102. Lympho-Sarcoma of a Rhode Island Red Hen, Involving the 
Mesentery and Rectum. 
1, lumen of large intestine — inside of tumor; 2, uninvolved portion of the 
rectum; 3, a portion of the cloacal mucous membrane; 4, caseation necrosis; 5, 
lympho-sarcomatous elements; 6, the mesentery; 7, five of the tumors. 



had a loss of appetite, diarrhea, and was thin in flesh. The comb 
and wattles and facial regions were pale and the plumage in a 
rather unkemped condition. 

After death, upon opening the abdominal cavity there was noted 
a complete loss of retroperitoneal fat. The liver was rather under 
size and of a dark reddish color and weighing but 25 grams. 
There was noted just anterior to the cloaca and involving the 
whole rectal wall, a tumor measuring 7.5 x 7.5 x 4 cm. Upon 
opening the tumor it was observed that it involved the entire 
rectal wall giving passage to that viscus through its middle. The 
sectioned surface of the tumor wall was 1.5 cm. in diameter as 
shown by Fig. 102. There was an ulceration of the lumen of the 
intestine, a mass of necrotic tissue appearing suspended from the 



TUMORS 



263 



wall of the cavity. The cavity was fusiform in shape, measuring 
1x3 cm. in the widest place. Anterior to this point and involving 
the intestinal wall were two other tumors which measured 2x1 
X 1 cm. At the anterior point of the kidney and overlying the 
adrenal gland was a fourth tumor measuring 3 x 3.5 x 4 cm. The 
sectioned surface revealed a solid though soft whitish structure. 

In the mesentery of the free portion of the intestine there were 
observed ten small, rather flat whitish-yellow appearing tumors. 
They varied somewhat in shape but the majority will fall within the 
limits of the measurements of the two following tumors: 5x8x2 
cm., 5x6x1 cm. 

MYXO-SARCOMA 

A myxo-sarcoma is another malignant tumor being made up 
of elements of both a sarcoma and of a myxoma. It is largely 




Fig. 103. Myxo-Sarcoma of a Barred Plymouth Rock Hen. 
1, 2, and 3, are tumors of the liver; 4, are small tumors developing in the liver 
substance; 5, are two small tumors of the pericardium at the apex of the heart. 



composed of cells ; the basement substance, though a constant 
and important factor, being much less conspicuous than in 
adult connective tissue. They closely resemble, in general, the 
developing connective tissue of the embryo or granulation 
tissue of inflammation. 

The sarcoma cells may be varied in size and shape. They 
may be flat, fusiform, spheroidal, or branched, and even cubi- 
cal or cylindrical ; they may be multinuclear, that is, have more 
than one nucleus, and very large, or they may be small and 
spheroidal, resembling leucocytes. The fibrillar basement sub- 
stance may be present in such small quantities as entirely to 



264 



POULTRY DISEASES 



escape a superficial observation, covered as it may be by the 
abundant cells, or it may be so abundant as to give the tumor 
the general appearance of a fibroma. 

Mucoid degeneration is frequent in the various forms of 
sarcoma. A combination of myxoma and sarcoma, myxo- 




104. A Photomicrograph of a Section of One of the Tumors Shown in 
Fig. 103, Showing Myxomatous Areas. 
Note the spindle and stellate cells. 



sarcoma, is common in man and animals. A case is shown in a 
photograph in Fig. 103 from a Barred Plymouth Rock hen. 
In the case illustrated in Figs. 103 and 104, numerous round 
white tumors were observed involving the viscera. The larger 
tumors measure 38 x 30 x 23 mm.; this larger tumor is attached to 
the side of the right lobe of the liver. The second larger of the 
tumors indicated by 2, measure 28 x 22 x 15 mm., and are attached 
to the anterior and inner part of the right lobe of the liver. There 
are several, twenty or more, smaller tumors varying in diameters 
of from 10 to 15 mm. There are still smaller tumors imbedded in 



TUMORS 265 

the liver substance as indicated at 4. These smaller tumors vary 
from 1 to 4 mm. in diameter. In addition to this tumors w^ere dis- 
tributed over other organs, there being three involving the peri- 
cardium and the base of the heart, and two of the same membrane 
near the apex. The balance of the organs were apparently in a 
normal state. 

SARCO-CHONDRO-OSTEOMATA 

Another form of compound tumor is a combination of the 
structures of a sarcoma, a chondroma or cartilage tumor, and 
an osteoma, or a bony tumor. This has been observed in a 
Single Comb Rhode Island Red hen. In Fig. 105 w^ill be seen 




Fig. 105. Sarco-Chondro-Osteomata of the Tibial Region of a Single Comb 

Rhode Island Red Hen. 

a tumor of the thigh and drum-stick region of a hen. This is 
a sarco-chondro-osteomata. This enlargement had been of 
gradual occurrence. The bird was thin in flesh. There were 
also other tumors on the sides of the thoracic walls. The bird 
seemed to suffer no great inconvenience, having a good appe- 
tite, and appearing happily disposed. 

At autopsy there was observed an irregular-shaped tumor on the 
left thoracic wall measuring 2 x 2 x 1.5 cm. There is also an 
irregular-shaped tumor on the right thoracic wall measuring 7 :i^ 6 
X 2 cm. These two tumors were attached to the ribs. A third 
hard tumor, irregular in shape, was observed on the leg just above 
the hock. This tumor measured 7 x 10 x 11 cm. This tumor had 
no capsule; on the other hand, presented rather a raw surface. It 
sprang from the subcutaneous connective tissue. In a cross sec- 



266 



POULTRY DISEASES 



tion the tumor showed islands, the center of which contained bone 
tissue surrounded by a hyahne cartilage the balance of the structure 
being made up of sarcomatous elements. The sarcomatous ele- 
ments are of the large spindle-cell variety. 

TERATOMA 

A teratoma is a congenital tumor, usually occurring in the 
sacral region, called coccygeal tumor ; the head and neck, 
midiastinum, or the abdominal cavity. They have also been 
observed in the kidney, ovary, and testes. 

The teratoma is composed of epithelial and connective-tissue 
types, adult and embryonic; and originates in rudiments de- 




FiG. 10^. A Horny Growth From the Thigh of a Fowl. 



rived from the three layers of the blastoderm, namely : ecto- 
derm, mesoderm, and entoderm. 

Teratomas have been observed in the fowl. Such a tumor 
v^as described in Vol. XXIV, Part 2, of the Journal of Com- 
parative Pathology and Therapeutics. 

The tumor was observed in the abdominal cavity and involved 
the mesentery. The left testicle was absent. The growth measured 
3x4x6 inches and was enclosed in a thin, fibrous membrane. The 
tumor mass consisted of a multitude of cysts ranging up to the 
size of a pea. Islands of cartilage, cavities lined with stratified 
epithelium and minute feathers. The conclusion was drawn that 
this tumor probably originated from the left testicle. 



TUMORS 267 

HORNY GROWTHS ON THE CUTICULAR SURFACE 

OF FOWLS 

Horny growths upon the skm surface of fowls have been 
recorded by Gadow and also from this laboratory. 

Fig. 106 shows a photograph of a horny growth removed from 
the outer thigh region of a two-year-old hen. The specimen 
measured 14 cm. long and 7.5 cm. in diameter at the base. The 
outer structure is horn-like, resembling the horny structure of the 
spur or claw. Feathers are noted, here and there, over the surface. 
The inner core consists of connective tissue and is soft in con- 
sistency. 

CYSTS 

A cyst is made up of a connective-tissue membrane or sup- 
porting wall lined by epithelium or endothelium, and forming 
a cavity the contents of which may be fluid or semi-fluid, uni- 
form in composition, or made up of a mixture of similar or 
dissimilar substances. 

When the wall of the cyst is passive and influenced by the 
retained or extravasated contents in a mechanical way only, the 
cyst is said to be simple or unilocular. When several simple 
cysts occur together, all arising from the same cause, and iden- 
tical in structure, they are called fiiultiplc cysts. When one 
cyst springs from the wall of another and thus gives rise to a 
second or a third cyst, the process resembling proliferation, 
the resulting cysts are known as proliferits cysts; the cyst walls 
may be destroyed by pressure, and thereby many of the cyst 
cavities communicate. When the cysts remain distinct, they 
are spoken of as multilocular. When the cysts communicate 
they are spoken of as cavernous. When the lining membrane 
of the cyst develops papillomatous masses, the process is called 
papuliferous. A cyst may be a retention cyst. These include 
all cysts due to occlusion of excretory ducts of glands with ac- 
cumulation of glandular secretion and exudative fluids in the 
closed cavity resulting from obstruction of the passage by 
which, normally, evacuations occur. Such cysts occur in con- 
nection with the gall bladder, pancreas, and mucus cysts and 
in connection with the kidney. Such cysts have a wall com- 
posed of condensed and thickened connective tissue, and the 
lining cells are epithelium. The contents are derived from the 
functional activity of the gland structure, altered from the 
absorption of a part of the fluid and the degenerative changes 
that the cellular elements wall and content may have under- 
gone. 

Exudation cysts embrace cysts arising from accumulation 
in closed cavities not supplied with an excretory duct. Such 
cysts may be observed in connection with bursae, tendon 



268 



POULTRY DISEASES 



sheaths, and the cyst wall is formed of a thick connective- 
tissue membrane lined with endothelium. 

Extravasation cysts are a variety of cysts formed around 
distended or ruptured vessels, or in areas of hemorrhage, and 
may occur in any tissue. 

Dermoid cysts are always of congenital origin, and arise as 
the result of cutaneous inclusion. The wall may contain ele- 
ments of the skin, the lining cells are epithelial, and the con- 
tents feathers and fluid. 

Parasitic cysts may be observed as sarcocysts and possibly 
other animal parasites infest the fowl and may become en- 
cysted. 

CYSTOMA 





Fig. 107. Multiple Tumors or Cysts of the Ovary of a Hen, Natural Size. 
a, ova that have undergone degeneration. Note the pedicle-like structure joining 

to the ovarian mass. 

A cystoma is a cyst resembling the above described cysts. 
The wall is of mesoblastic origin, lined with a flattened layer 
of connective-tissue cells and endothelium. The contained 
fluid is usually clear, straw-colored, slightly albuminous, and 
of low specific gravity ; the fluid may be colored, cloudy, and 
contain flocculi. The contents may be grumous, cheesy or 
semi-solid. 



TUMORS 



269 



The most frequent site of a cystoma is the ovary. Multiple 
cysts or tumors of the ovary is the most common and consist 
of yolks, or ova, which v^ere forming, but failed of maturity 
and to enter the oviduct, disease processes overcoming them. 
Later these masses become hard and irregular in shape, yellow- 
ish in color, consisting of more or less dried or inspissated 
yolk much of the liquid being absorbed. Ovarian infection 
with the Bacterium pullorum is a common cause of this condi- 
tion. Fig. 107 illustrates natural size of one of these cases. 

Many times cysts are observed in connection with the ovary 
that contain a colorless fluid. These cysts vary in size and 
are attached to the ovarian mass by a pedicle. 

CASEOUS ABDOMINAL TUMORS OR CYSTS 

.Caseous abdominal tumors or cysts are quite frequently 
observed. Such cysts may be in connection with the air sacs. 




Fig. 108. A S. C. Rhode Island Red Hen 
With an Abdominal Cyst. 

The upright attitude is a diagnostic symptom 
of ail abdominal tumor, ruptured oviduct with 
eggs in the abdominal cavity, or, of an injured 
spine. 

ovary, oviduct with aborted formative eggs, or in connection 
with other structures. 

Symptoms. — A hen with quite a large abdominal cyst may 
appear in good health, the appetite and general appearance re- 
maining excellent and only the symptoms of such a condition 
as to attitude be the only sign of the disease. If the cyst is of 



270 



POULTRY DISEASES 



considerable size, as was the case in the hen photographed and 
shown in Fig. 108, she will assume an attitude like a penguin 
and when she walks her tail drags the ground and when stand- 
ing still she assumes almost an upright position. Upon palpa- 
tion of the abdomen there will be felt the tumor-like mass, 
which may be freely movable or stationary, depending on loca- 
tion and structures involved. Such a tumor the size of a hen 
egg may cause such symptoms. 

Treatment. — The bird can be placed under chloroform and 
the cyst removed by making an incision three or four inches 




f 



Fig. 109. Photograph Showing Sections Through the Oviduct Mass of 

Arrested Formative Eggs. 

1, shell; 2, yolks; 3, dirty, grayish, putty-like mass. 



long, in the abdominal wall. After making the incision 
through the skin and controlling the hemorrhage, a mass of 
retroperitoneal fat, three-fifths of an inch may be encountered. 
Incising this fat causes very little hemorrhage and in fact, 
some of the fat, lipectomy, is necessary in order to be able to 
remove the cyst. Usually the cysts are easily dissected out. 
Many of these cysts contain a granular cheesy material. Birds 
take chloroform anesthesia very readily and care must be exer- 
cised to not give too much. A bird soon comes out of the 
effects and shows no ill after effects of the anesthesia. After 
the tumor is removed the wound may be sutured by a con- 
tinuous suture and the bird placed in a comfortable coop and 



TUMORS 271 

given a light diet for a few days. Birds die readily from 

shock and some operations are followed in a short space of 

time with death. 

Formative Egg Accumulations Due to Weakness of the Muscular 
Walls of the Oviduct. — Weakness of the muscles of the walls of 
the oviduct and a weakness of the walls of the ovarian pocket often 
result in the accumulation of formative eggs in the oviduct or in 
the abdominal cavity outside of the oviduct. The attitude of a hen 
in such a condition is similar to that of cysts in the abdominal 
cavity, the hen assuming an upright position when at rest. The 
abdominal wall is usually tense and there may be an accumulation 
of some fluid in the abdominal cavity. Tumefactions may be felt 
upon palpating the abdomen. In one such case the mass entirely 
filled the oviduct, extending from the juncture of the first portion 
through the second or albumin-secreting portion, and through the 
third or isthmus and through the fourth or shell gland portion. 
The tumor mass measured 14.5 cm. in the anterio-posterior diam- 
eter, 9.2 cm. in its lateral diameter, and 9.4 cm. in its dorso-ventral 
diameter. In addition to this large mass there was a small one in 
the vaginal portion. 

Ten eggs, two of them with shells, made tip the entire 

tumor-like mass. Degenerative changes had taken place in 

some of them, and there was much dirty, grayish, granular 

material laid down in layers, alternating with layers of yellow 

and layers of white albuminous material surrounding the 

yolks. 

Polypus 

Polypus is a name given to tumors which are attached by means 
of a pedicle. They occur in mucous membranes especially, and 
which have been compared to certain zoophytes. Polypi may 
form on every mucous membrane, but are most common in the 
pharynx, oviduct and intestine. A polypus was observed by the 
writer in the third portion or isthmus of the oviduct of a hen. 
The hen had laid two eggs the day previous, one in the morning 
and one at 4 p. m. and at the time of the death of the hen there 
had been arrested, by the polypoid obstruction three yolks with 
their albumin surrounding them. The main polypus was 1.5 cm. 
in diameter, containing a fatty liquid. In addition to the main 
polypus there were four degenerating polypi. Each of these were 
4 m.m. in diameter. The ovary was still functioning. 

Polypi vary in size, number, mode of adhesion, and intricate nature. 
The polypi may be soft, mucus type, myxomatous, hard fibrous, and 
dense or compact and whitish in color. 



CHAPTER XIII 

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES OF THE 
FOWL LEG WEAKNESS 

This is a condition in which the bird cannot bear its own 
weight or it has difficulty in doing so. It occurs in young as 
well as in old birds but the causes as generally observed in the 
very young bird is entirely different from that of the old bird 
or those nearing maturity. Knowledge as to leg weakness, so 
common at times in certain localities, is imperfect. The con- 
ditions are being investigated and are gradually being cleared. 

Cause. — One cause of leg weakness or lameness in chicks 
may be food deficiencies. Feed deficient in water soluble B 
vitamine will not only show slow growth and malnutrition but 
will also show lameness with possibly complete loss of the use 
of the limbs or paralysis. The chick may hold its .head side- 
wise, or even curled under its body till the top of the head rests 
on the floor. 

In young chicks some of the causes are believed to be im- 
properly heated brooders, too much bottom heat, damp and 
badly ventilated houses and keeping chicks constantly on 
wooden floors. Chicks developing weak legs on board floors 
recover as soon as they are placed on ground and allowed to 
run out doors. Leg weakness has also been reported where 
chicks were on cement floors but it is not believed to be so 
fruitful a source as board floors. There is little doubt but that 
overheating and too much under heat are among the common 
causes. There has not been near so much leg weakness among 
chicks since the days when top, instead of under, heat was 
adopted. It appears to be the artificially brooded chicks that 
develop leg weakness and the disease is supposed to be un- 
known among the natural brooded chicks, especially where the 
hen and brood are provided with the combination sitting and 
brooding coop and the chicks are out doors all day. 

Leg weakness may be observed in birds that are heavily fed 
and grow rapidly and where the bird's weight appears to in- 
crease faster than its strength under such conditions the 
chick may show spells of dizziness, run sidewise, fall over on 
its side, and, after a few moments get up and stagger off. The 
chick will now for a while appear better only to suffer another 
attack and if not changed in its feed and environment may die. 
In fact one after another of the flock will become affected. 



274 POULTRY DISEASES 

Overcrowding and close ventilation are no doubt contributing 
factors. 

Leg weakness among baby chicks at times appears sud- 
denly and with a change in environmental conditions it usually 
disappears just as suddenly. The worst cases die and the 
milder ones may recover. The condition may affect only one, 
or at most a few birds. There is unsteadiness in walking, and 
in badly affected cases the bird sits around till finally the 
muscular function is entirely arrested and in baby chicks the 
legs may present a shriveled appearance. 

Postmortem Findings. — No definite lesions can be found in the 
baby chick that has died of leg weakness. 

Treatment. — Leg weakness of baby chicks is due either to 
environmental conditions or to improper feed. Correct any 
feed error and look to sanitary conditions and get chicks out 
on clean grassy plot as soon as weather will permit. 

Proper ventilation of the quarters is essential, keep the runs 
clean, change litter once a week and under the hover once a 
day. If the cause is a lack of lime salts supply lime water 
or chick size oyster shell. Ground bone meal to baby chicks 
and place the chicks on the ground, at least, through the 
warmer part of the day. Even temperature and proper heat 
must be maintained at all times for the baby chicks. Fifteen 
minutes chilling may cause congestion of the lungs arid kid- 
neys and result fatally. 

Remove the affected birds, in case of disease among young 
chicks, and reduce the amount of fat forming feeds. Give the 
proper protein ration. A narrow ration is needed, one with 
a nutritive ratio of about 1 :3. Feed oatmeal and oats, cracked 
corn, and whole wheat, plenty of green feed, sour milk, or 
meat or fish meal, and one teaspoonful fluid nux vomica to 
each pint of water. In case birds are "fed off their feet" 
widen the ration and feed more grain and fewer number of 
feedings. Throw the grain in fine litter so that the chicks will 
be kept busy much of the time scratching for it. 

PARALYSIS OF THE DOMESTIC FOWL 

Paralysis, or partial or complete loss of one or both legs, 
wings, or similar affection of the head and neck occurs among 
fowls and a wing paralysis has been described among pigeons. 

In these outbreaks the disease may appear sudden and ap- 
pear each year among the young birds after its first appear- 
ance, and in one instance it was reported to have skipped a 
year and then reappear among the young birds of that 
premise. It may appear on new ground and in others upon 
ground that has been used for various periods by poultry, 



DISEASES BRAIN AND NERVES 275 

varying from one to several years. Ploughing and seeding 
and even changing these same birds to new quarters does not 
stop the disease. 

In many cases there is a history that new birds have been 
introduced into the flock. In others such definite informa- 
tion cannot be secured. 

Birds, both male and female, from three months of age to 
two-years-old may be afifected. The most number of cases 
range in chicks from four to six months old. 



Fig. 110. Photograph of a Single Comb Rhode Island Red Hen With Paraly- 
sis OF Both Legs. 
Note diarrhea and the distressed appearance of the face. 

Symptoms. — The disease is always fatal. The symptoms 
are sudden in their onset. A bird apparently well today and 
laying may show slight lameness in one leg tomorrow, later 
both legs become afifected, complete loss of the use of both legs, 
diarrhea, possibly a loss of appetite, though in some cases the 
appetite remains normal, emaciation and finally death. One or 
both wings may be the first to be attacked or the disease may 
first show its appearance in the head, neck, or eyes when 
blindness occurs. The most common type we have seen is 
that afifecting the legs. The duration of the disease varies. A 
bird may die in a few days, ten days to tw^o weeks, or it may 
live for many weeks. 

Postmortem Findings. — At autopsy usually the organs appear quite 
normal, sometimes congestion and a possible cloudy swelling shown 
by the grayish appearance of the sectioned surface. 



276 POULTRY DISEASES 

The microscopic diagnosis is one of degeneration and myelitis. 
The changes present will depend on the stage of the disease and 
its extent. There may be only degenerating motor ganglionic 
nerve cells, or in case of lameness in one leg a unilateral myelitis, 
or, in case of lameness in both legs a transverse myelitis. 

A microscopic examination of sections of the various organs and 
nerve tissues shows the following: The heart musculature is always 
normal. The kidneys may be normal or there may be different 
degrees of parenchymatous nephritis, cloudy swelling, active and 
passive congestion, and cellular invasion. The liver may show no 
alteration or may show cloudy swelling, congestion and cellular 
invasion. Changes in the nervous system will be observed in those 
ganglionic areas where the nerves supplying motor impulses arise. 
If the legs are affected structural changes will occur in the lumbo- 
sacral segment of the spinal cord. If the wings are affected then 
lesions will be observed in the ganglion of the brachial segment, 
and if the neck or eyes are affected then in the centers presiding 
over these parts. 

The cellular invasion in some cases is perivascular and in others 
diffuse. Complete degeneration and solution of areas of the spinal 
cord may occur — a liquefaction necrosis. The cellular invasion or 
myelitis may be entirely absent in cases of paralysis. Secondary 
changes may or may not be present in the parenchymatous organs. 
In acute, extensive cases, with severe paralysis and diarrhea and a 
rapid course cloudy swelling may be noted in the liver and kidneys. 
Both active and passive congestion may be present. Cellular in- 
vasion as seen in the spinal cord may be present, in some cases 
diffused and in others perivascular. Parenchymatous nephritis and 
hepatitis then may accompany the disease though these changes 
may be absent or only a slight degree. 

Birds from flocks never known to have had the disease 
before, placed with affected flocks, is followed, by several of 
the healthy susceptible birds introduced, coming down with 
the disease. A flock or premise once having paralysis birds 
upon it will always cause paralysis, even w^hen a new flock of 
birds are placed upon the ground or in the building. The 
disease may occur on new ground or on ground where birds 
have been reared for many years. 

Treatment is impossible. A new flock on new land and 
new buildings is advised. 

RHEUMATISM 

Rheumatism may affect birds and especially adult birds. 
This will cause lameness or loss of function of a wing, and 
will have a tendency to shift. Birds kept on damp low ground 
are especially liable to become affected. 

Treatment. — Give, to adult birds, 5 grains aspirin three 
times a day. 

PARALYSIS OF THE WINGS OF PIGEONS 

The shoulder and elbow of the wing of carrier pigeons are 
sometimes affected by arthritis, which has been described as 



DISEASES BRAIN AND NERVES 277 

infectious. The affected wing droops and the bird is unable to 

fly- . . 

Predisposing causes are, housing in cold lofts and allowing 
the birds to roost in drafts. Wet fly may also be mentioned as 
well as bad sanitation. 

The affected birds should be isolated from the balance of 
the flock. 

Abscess formation sometimes occurs, pus being of a caseous 
consistency. Birds may recover, but if abscesses form they 
may lose the power of flight. 

DIZZINESS— VERTIGO 

Affections of the brain are comparatively common in the 
fowl. Vertigo has been known where the brain is congested, 
especially in very fat, plethoric birds. Excessive heat in hot 
summer weather; absorption of' poisonous substances, as 
toxins, from the intestinal tract ;' irritation due to intestinal 
worms; injury to the head, as by a blow, etc., are among the 
causes of dizziness among birds. 

Symptoms. — Vertigo is observed among baby chicks. The 
birds appear dizzy, finally falling over on their sides helpless 
and in a few minutes may recover to later suffer another 
attack and may finally die. The adult bird throws its head 
upward, backward, and to one side. It may walk sidewise or 
backward, and have an unsteady walk — staggery. The bird 
may be drowsy, and even have epileptiform symptoms. 

Treatment. — Place the affected bird in cool, well ventilated, 
comfortable quarters, free from drafts, and for the adult bird 
give thirty grains epsom salts, dissolved in warm water. Give 
also two-grain doses of strantium bromide every hour. Thor- 
ough purging is one of the first essentials. 

In case of limber neck, due to eating rotten meat, and pros- 
tration, give one-fifth grain doses of strychnin three times a 
day. 

HEMORRHAGE OF THE BRAIN 

Hemorrhage into the brain substance is called apoplexy. 
This condition is thought to be common in the domestic fowl 
but on further investigation it is thought that it is not com- 
mon. Hemorrhage of the brain may be due to over^straining, 
as in egg-laying, in very fat birds. Injury to the head, as a 
blow; and over sti nulating feed. 

Symptoms. — The hen may be obesrved dead on the nest. 
The symptoms are of short duration ; the attack comes on 
suddenly, as the hemorrhage soon presses on the brain struc- 
tures so that the function of that part stops and the animal is 
seen to stagger, fall, and immediately die. 



!78 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Postmortem Findings. — Upon opening the brain cavity and 
examining the brain, there will be observed hemorrhages, or 
clots, in the brain substance. 



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Fig. 111. PHOTOGRAPii OF A Longitudinal Section Through the Head of a 
Mottled Houdan Showing Hemorrhage Into the Brain Substance 
Due to a Blow From a Small Stone Thrown by a Boy. 
1, hemorrhage into the brain; 2, hemorrhage into the eye orbit; 3, brain tissue 
in which there is no hemorrhage. 



EPILEPSY 

Epilepsy is a disease of the brain and spinal cord, occurring 
in paroxisms, characterized by the loss of consciousness and 
convulsive motions of the muscles, with uncertain intervals 
between them. 

In the attack the bird emits sharp sounds, makes flopping 



DISEASES BRAIN AND NERVES 279 

movements with its wings, falls on its side or back, moves its 
feet rapidly, rolls its eyeballs, bends its neck round to one side, 
opens and shuts its beak alternately, and moves the whole body 
to and fro. 

After one or two minutes the spasms cease and the bird gets 
up, staggers and may at first support itself with its beak and 
outstretched wings and finally falls because of a fresh attack 
or it may gradually recover from the first attack without any 
immediate renewal of the spasms. 

Hemiplegia, or loss of motion on one side of the body, 
sometimes follows as a sequel of this disease. 

Epileptiform attacks are sometimes caused by internal para- 
sites. 

Treatment. — The treatment should consist of a physic. Dur- 
ing the attack the bird should be cared for to prevent its in- 
juring itself. True epilepsy is incurable and such a bird 
should not be bred from. 

MYELITIS 

Myelitis is an inflammation of the spinal marrow or its 
membranes. There are indications of a deep seated burning 
pain. It is accompanied by various nervous and vascular 
irregularities of function. 

Myelitis in the cervical region of the fowl has been ob- 
served and is noted to manifest itself by paresis and hyper- 
esthesia of the wing, lateral flexion of the neck during repose 
so that the beak may be directed backward. During feeding 
the head may be carried in a normal position. 

POLYNEURITIS 

Polyneuritis is a multiple neuritis, and neuritis is an inflam- 
mation of a nerve. 

Birds fed on a diet wholly of wheat bread develop a poly- 
neuritis similar to polyneuritis gallinarum as produced in 
fowls with a diet of polished rice. The disease made its ap- 
pearance in from twenty-one to eighty-two days, with an 
average of about forty days. 

In the large majority of the fowls the first symptoms of 
polyneuritis is a slight unsteadiness, together with evidence 
of an involvement of the nerves supplying the exterior mus- 
cles of the legs, manifested by a high step and a tendency to 
bring the foot down with a flop. In many birds there seems 
to be difficulty in co-ordination early in the disease. In such 
case the fowl teeters slightly forward as if trying to balance 
on its toes and walking is with a decided ataxic gait. As the 
disease progresses in all cases walking becomes more and more 



280 POULTRY DISEASES 

difficult, until the bird can only squat in the cage, and this con- 
dition is soon followed by one of complete paralysis. The dis- 
ease usually begins with peripheral paralysis and later an in- 
volvement of the higher nerve centers. When fowls are fed 
on white bread without yeast, they come down with polyneu- 
ritis sometime sooner than when fed with bread containing 
yeast. The same holds true of pigeons fed in a similar man- 
ner, except that the pigeons were fed on ship biscuits. When 
fowls are fed on whole wheat bread, they remain perfectly 
healthy for as long as seventy-five days. It is apparent that 
whole wheat bread contains some element or elements, lacking 
in the white bread, which is necessary to maintain the proper 
bodily metabolism. Fowls force-fed come down fully as soon 
as those that are allowed to eat at will, indicating that it is not 
a matter of how much feed is taken, but its quality. 

Fowls fed on whole corn remain perfectly well for a period 
of sixty-three days, but when they are fed on the inside of 
the corn kernel alone they come down with the disease as 
when fed on wheat bread. 

Tests were run to determine the efifects of a starvation diet. 
Two fowls were started on normal diet, then the amount was 
gradually cut down, until after about twenty-one days the birds 
were receiving nothing but water. One fowl went for thirty- 
eight days without food and the other for fifty-six days. In 
neither fowl was there a typical picture of paralysis ; the symp- 
toms presented appeared to be due to muscular weakness. 

Polyneuritis has also been produced by feeding exclusively 
on one of the following foods : sago, boiled white potato, cream 
of wheat, corn starch, wheat flour, corn grits, boiled sweet 
potato, puffed rice, and macaroni. 

It is apparent according to tests that pigeons fed on biscuits 
baked of rye flour, either with or without yeast, do not develop 
polyneuritis, while pigeons fed on wheat bread do. 

The clinical picture of a case of polyneuritis is as follows : 
During the first ten days the bird eats heartily of the feed 
and appears at all times active and well, except for more or 
less diarrhea. On the eleventh day the fowl begins to refuse 
feed and on the fifteenth day forced feeding must be resorted 
to. The first symptoms of paralysis is noted on the twenty- 
second day. On this day the fowl is slightly unsteady and 
stands teetering forward and backward on its toes ; when 
forced to walk it does so with a high step pushing its feet 
well forward as if trying to brush something from in front 
of it. Three days later there will be noted a slight head 
tremor, and the bird walks with a decided staggery gait, but 



DISEASES BRAIN AND NERVES 281 

does not fall. The next day both wings droop, and it walks 
with great difficulty, and every now and then the joint formed 
by the tibia and the metatarsus seemed to give way and the 
fowl suddenly assumes a squatting position. It remains in 
the cage in a squatting position most of the time on the flexed 
tarsometatarsus, with the extremities also flexed. On the fol- 
lowing day the bird cannot stand. The comb is cyanotic, there 
is convulsive movements, now and then, with retraction of the 
head. The following day the bird is prostrate. The duration 
of the disease is six or seven days. 

PARALYSIS OF THE AUDITORY NERVE OF THE 
DOMESTIC FOWL 

ANATOMY OF THE PARTS 

In the fowl the facial, or seventh pair of cranial nerves, and the 
auditory or eighth pair, are so intimately associated, it appears 
well to give the origin and distribution of both at the same time. 

The facial nerve originates, with the auditory, from the cere- 
bellum. It divides into three parts, the first probably from the 
complex gangHon with the posterior roots of the auditory. This 
root belongs to the somatic group of nerves. From this same group 
originates the auditory which spreads out into the cochlea and 
takes the impression of sound. This nerve is short and thick, and 
at the point where it loses its medullary covering on entering the 
cochlea there is developed a ganglion. This ganglion is similar to 
the spinal ganglion. 

The second part originates by one root which is located medially 
and ventrially from the deeper ganglion cells. Some of the fibers 
from this root constitute the vestibular branches and accompany 
the auditory and supply the anterior part of the ear labyrinth and 
semicircular canals. The larger part of the fibers of this trunk 
make up the intermediate part of the facial. The geniculate gan- 
glion is formed at their fusion. The sympathetic sphenopalatine 
nerve emerges from this ganglion, coming out of the aqueduct of 
Fallopius. 

The third part is called the portio dura and is the main facialis. 
It is located opposite the auditorius intermedins. Its roots may be 
traced to the complex ganglion, from which they take a ventral 
direction. 

PARALYSIS OF THE COCHLEAR NERVE 

The paralysis of the cochlear nerve, the true organ of 
hearing, may be a congenital defect and has been observed 
in ambliotic animals. It is due to a defective condition of 
the spinal ganglion with resulting degeneration of the or- 
gans of Corti. Paralysis of the nerve may also be caused 
by inflammatory changes in the internal ear or intracranial 
disease in the neighborhood of the medulla oblongata. It 
has been observed as a symptom in coccidiosis and also in 
fowl plague. 



282 POULTRY DISEASES 

PARALYSIS OF THE VESTIBULAR NERVE 

This condition is frequently observed in fowls. It is often 
caused by inflammation of the middle or internal ear. It has 
been observed in fowl pest. It is also brought about in caries 
of the petros temporal bone. Concussion of the brain and 
hemorrhage of the internal ear is also a causative factor. Cer- 
tain disease conditions of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata 
may cause an interruption in the conductivity of the ves- 
tibular nerve. In pigeons it is observed in contagious menin- 
gitis. 

The symptoms of bilateral disease of the cochlear nerve are 
easily recognized owing to the fact that there is complete deaf- 



FiG. 112. Paralysis of the Auditory Nerve of a 
Silver Campine Hen. 

^less. If it is unilateral the symptoms may be so meagre that 
its presence entirely escapes the observation of the owner. 

Unilateral paralysis of the vestibular nerve is evidenced in 
all species by the head being held in an oblique manner. The 
head may be held in a position under the front part of the 
body with the lower part of the head turned back toward the 
sound side. This turning of the head may be slight or 45° to 
75°, but in birds it may be as much as 180°, or even more. 
If the head be carried under the body the dorsum of the cran- 
ium may touch the ground. There is frequently a horizontal 
rolling of the eyeballs toward the sound side. There may be 



DISEASES BRAIN AND NERVES 283 

difficulty in taking food, and in birds it is commonly quite 
impossible. If the disease is bilateral it closely resembles cere- 
bellar ataxia, only the symptoms are limited to the head and 
neck. 

If the paralysis is due to an injury, the disease as a rule is 
not permanent and the symptoms all disappear in a few days 
or weeks. If the condition is due to pathological changes in 
the auditory nerve ' or nerves the symptoms are persistent, 
depending on the nature of the primary cause. The bird may, 
after a while, die. 

In traumatic causes the bird needs to be kept in a quiet place 
free from annoyances, and, if necessary, artificial feeding re- 
sorted to. If there has been an injury and hemorrhage takes 
place in the tissues, surgical interference may be indicated 
In cases in pigeons due to contagious meningitis an attempt 
should be made to isolate the diseased bird and carry out 
thorough disinfection. Calomel should be given to the bird and 
cold water packs applied to the head. 

In Fig. 112 shows a photograph of a Silver Campine hen which 
was sent to the laboratory for study. The hen was from a farm 
flock, and was two years old. There was not present among the 
flock any contagious disease nor was it certain that any accidental 
or mechanical injury had taken place. The bird holds her head 
under the body with the top of the head nearly touching the 
ground. Other such cases have been brought to the attention of 
the writer. In the case just related there was a thorough exam- 
ination made of the external auditory canals but results were nega- 
tive for evidence of violence or parasitism. Eating by the bird was 
accomplished with difficulty and the bird died after suffering in 
this manner for a period of sixty days. 

In a second case the bird recovered after a period of about five 
weeks. In this latter case examination of the skull and auditory 
canals were negative. 



CHAPTER XIV 

BACTERIA OF THE INTESTINAL TRACT OF THE 

FOWL 

The bacterial flora of the intestinal tract of fowls has been 
receiving considerable study during recent years. The ali- 
mentary tract of man and animals contains many millions of 
bacteria, of many varieties. Many of these are constantly 
present and constitute what is known as the normal intestinal 
flora. To the newly-born child or animal the intestinal tract 
is sterile, that is, it contains no germs, but as soon as the young 
partakes of food and water the intestines are seeded and ever 
after contain bacteria in large numbers. The same can be said 
of the chick. 

Some of these germs are not harmful, but give off ferments 
similar to the cells of the accessory glands of digestion ; these 
ferments may aid in the splitting up of foodstuffs and in pre- 
paring it for absorption. Ferments of this kind have been 
called organized ferments, but we have now learned that such 
ferments do not in any way differ in action from those secreted 
by the stomach, pancreas, or intestinal glands. It is their fer- 
ments, and not the germs themselves, that cause the splitting 
up of the food nutrients. 

Some of the bacteria are at times injurious, and oftentimes 
pathogenic organisms gain access to the intestinal tract and 
may produce disease, if the bird is susceptible. There are also, 
at times, protozoa present, especially those belonging to the 
coccidia group. 

The following organisms have been found in the normal 
mouth and pharynx of the fowl : Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus 
coli communis, Bacillus lactis hulgaricus, Bacillus viscosus, 
Bacillus cloacae, Pneumo coccus, Streptococcus pyogenes, 
Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, Micrococcus magnus. Micro- 
coccus tetragenes, Pseudo pyocyaneus. Bacillus prodigiosus. 

The following germs have been found as normal inhabitants 
of the duodenum, or first portion of the intestine, of birds : 
Bacillus mesentericiis, Bacillus subtilis. Bacillus ramosus. 
Bacillus screus, Bacillus asterosporus, Bacillus fnsiformis. 
Bacillus coli communis, Streptococcus lacticus. Bacillus lactis 
aerogenes, Bacillus prodigiosus, Sarcina aurantiaca, Sarcina 
lutea, Sarcina ventriculus, Cladothrix asteroides. Micrococcus 
rosettaceus, brown, white and green molds, coral and white 



286 POULTRY DISEASES 

yeasts. Micrococcus roscus and ClamydotJirix ferriigenes. 

In the third portion of the small intestine, or ileum, may be 
found green and white molds, Cladothrix asteroidcs, Bacillus 
cloacae, Bacillus ramosus, Sarcina lutca, and sarcina auran- 
tiaca, Staphylococcus pyogenes alhus, and citreus, Staphy- 
lococcus cereus alhus, Bacillus fluorescens liquefaciens, Micro- 
coccus asterosporus, Streptococcus lacticus. Bacillus lactis 
aerogenes, Bacillus coli coininunis, Bacillus prodigiosus, 
Bacillus mesentericus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus megatherium, 
Bacillus fusiformis. Bacillus subtilis. 

Practically the same microorganisms are to be found in the 
caecum. The same may be said of the cloaca, with possibly 
the addition of the Bacillus aerogenes capsulatus and the 
staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. 

It must be remembered that the intestinal flora is probably 
not the same for all birds, as different surroundings or en- 
vironments, different sources of feed, as well as different feed 
and water, play a part in carrying germs to the intestinal tract. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE EGG 

COMPOSITION 

An average-sized hen tgg weighs about two ounces, of which 
eleven per cent is shell, thirty -two per cent yolk, and fifty- 
seven per cent white. The principal chemical constituents of 
the e:gg are as follows: Ash (mineral matter) nine per cent; 
fat (hydrocarbon) nine and three-tenths per cent; proteids 
(nitrogenous matter) eleven and nine-tenths per cent, and 
water, sixty-five and five-tenths per cent. 

COMPOSITION OF THE EGG SHELL 

Gadow gives the composition of the Ggg shell as follows : 

Per Cent 

Calcium carbonate 91.44 

Magnesium carbonate 2.03 

Calcium phosphate 0.70 

Organic phosphate 4.92 

Water 0.73 

Loss (or traces of other salts) 0.18 

Total 100.00 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN EGGS 

Worms have been found in eggs. It is probable that intes- 
tinal worms as the Ascaris inflexa, and the Heterakis papillosa, 
and other round worms, normally inhabiting the intestines, may 
find their way up the egg canal and be incorporated with the 
tgg as it is formed. By referring to Fig. 2, it will be seen that 
a live worm, possessing power of movement as these worms do, 
passing into the cloaca, 16, from the rectum, 15, can pass up 
the Qgg canal, 23, and thus be incorporated in the albumin of 
the egg, as it is formed around the yolk. These conditions are 
rare. 

BACTERIA OF EGGS 

Several investigators have, of recent years, devoted much 
time to the investigation of the bacterial flora of eggs. It is 
needless to say that all understand that the spoiling of eggs 
is due to the multiplication of bacteria in them, when the egg 
is brought under the proper temperature. The cold storage of 
eggs holds them under conditions unfavorable for the rapid 
growth of these bacteria. When eggs are kept cold the bac- 



288 POULTRY DISEASES 

teria within them are in a more or less dormant state and 
hence by reason of this retardation of germ growth the eggs 
keep longer. 

Eggs can be successfully desiccated or dried and such pow- 
dered product is on the market. The moisture in it is so re- 
duced that germs do not grow and, like any other dried prod- 
uct, it keeps well. This desiccated products retains the quality 
of the fresh egg for a long time. One pound represents about 
three and one-half pounds raw egg or an amount obtained 
from thirty eggs. The Qgg contains considerable fat and be- 
cause of this the dried product gradually undergoes a change 
at warm temperatures, much as butter does, finally giving off 
a rancid, fish-like odor. 

It is not probable that the yolk or ovum becomes infected 
while it is being formed in the ovary, unless the ovary, from 
which it is developed, is diseased. It has been shown that 
birds that have had white diarrhea while chicks and recovered, 
grown to maturity, and commenced laying, have diseased 
ovaries, ovaries which harbor the Bacterium pulloriim, the 
cause, or at least one of the causes, of white diarrhea, and 
this germ is incorporated within the yolk of the egg. This is 
an important means of spreading this disease and one before 
which sanitation is powerless. 

Ordinarily the internal organs, as the ovaries, kidneys, 
spleen, etc., are sterile unless diseased, as just stated. How- 
ever, Conradi maintains that he has found bacteria in these 
supposedly sterile organs in seventy-two cases out of one 
hundred sixty-two. 

The germs that have been alluded to under the intestinal 
flora of chickens can easily find their way into the cloaca and 
up the oviduct, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The yolk or ovum 
when fully developed in the ovary is delivered, in a similar 
manner as in higher animal life, into the first portion of the 
oviduct or, in animals the fallopian tube, which at its free 
extremity is rather funnel shaped and is called the osthim 
infundihiihim. This egg canal which can be likened to the 
uterus of higher animals is about eighteen to twenty inches 
long and is lined with tubular glands which secrete albumen, 
and in the posterior portion the shell membranes, then the 
shell. This material is formed from foods carried by the 
blood, which is very abundant in these walls. As the egg 
passes through the last portion of the oviduct, called the uterus, 
the pigment of shell coloring is put on it. As the egg passes 
through the cloaca in being passed out or layed, it is exposed 
to contamination by germs which may be taken up into the 
oviduct with the male elements or spermatozoa, after copula- 



EGG COMPOSITION 289 

tion. Bacteria are not so common in non-fertile eggs, a fact 
that supports this theory. 

Many of the organisms found in eggs are non-motile, so 
that they must find their way up this canal by extension by 
growth or be carried mechanically. Among the germs that 
have been found in eggs are : Micrococcus, non-liquifaciens, 
Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and alhus, Bacillus protidig- 
iosus, Bacillus violaceus, Bacillus puiridis, Bacillus putridis 
non-liquifaciens , Streptococci, Micrococcus luteus, Micro- 
coccus candicans, Micrococcus flavns tardigradus. 

The colon bacillus is ever present in the intestinal tract of 
fowls and is found on the outer shell, yet contamination of 
the tgg content by it does not occur. This has led some to 
think that there may be a substance present in the ^gg canal 
that is bacteriacidal for this germ and the matter is being fur- 
ther investigated. 

Among those germs which find their way through the pores 
of the Qgg shell after it is layed in the Bacillus paratyphosis, 
the cause of paratyphoid in man. 

BACTERIA IN FRESH EGGS 

Of 1,894 yolks from fresh eggs that were examined in the 
month from February to September 7.7 per cent contained 
germs other than the Bacterium puUorum and over 16 per cent 
contained the Bacterium pullorum. 

A total of three years, including all months, and a total of 
3,510 yolks of fresh eggs, 9.5 per cent contained bacteria, not 
including the Bacterium pullorum. Nearly 20 per cent con- 
tained the Bacterium pullorum. 

Of 105 tested with the fermentation tube for the Bacillus 
coli, all were negative. 

Of the whites of 582 eggs examined, only 1.2 per cent con- 
tained bacteria. 

Lange placed eggs, after sterilizing with corrosive sublimate 
and ether, in bouillon cultures of Bacillus coli, Bacillus typho- 
sis. Bacillus paratyphosis. Bacillus enteritidis and Bacillus 
botulinus. The Bacillus typhosis required two days to enter 
the white and three days to penetrate the yolk at 37° C. The 
Bacillus coli may reach the white in one and the yolk in five 
days. 

The secretions of the glands of the mucous lining of the 
oviduct have some bacteriacidal action as well as the ^gg 
white itself. 

Eggs that have been incubated artificially for three weeks 
remain relatively free from bacterial decomposition, provided 
they were fresh and clean when placed in the incubator. 



CHAPTER XVI 

MALFORMATIONS 

Malformations among birds are occasionally observed. A 
complete discussion of the dozens of various forms of mal- 
formations that may be found cannot be given here for the 
lack of space, but a few facts will be given. 

In higher animal life, including man, malformations have 
been attributed to the following causes : 

External mechanical influences, such as falls, blows, or 
severe shock of any kind, by affecting the general health of the 




Fig. 113. Dipygus Tetrabrachium or Monster 
Chick. 

Showing two bodies, four legs, four wings, 
and one head. 

pregnant female, may have power to arrest, retard or other- 
wise disturb the normal development of the embryo or fetus. 

There may be spontaneous amputation, during incubation, 
by a coil of the umbilical cord finding its way around a part 
of the fetus or adhesions, causing pressure and amputation, 
as shown in Fig. 123. The more often eggs are turned each 
day during incubation up to nine times a day the fewer mal- 
formations will occur. 

It has been observed that a hen will turn her eggs, on an 



292 POULTRY DISEASES 

average, nine times a day. In artificial incubation where eggs 
are turned but once a day there are far more cripples or de- 
formed legs and cross beaks due to adhesions, than where the 
eggs are turned six or more times a day. 

The percentage of malformations in the human family is 
one to three or four thousand births ; in the lower animals and 
in birds the percentage is much smaller. 

During the formation of the fetus an arrest of development 
of the bud which forms the wing may result in a malformed 
wing; the same can be said of any other part, as the leg, beak, 
etc. 




Fig. 114. Polymelus. 
:, the two supernumerary legs. 



If the arrangement of the groups of cells during develop- 
ment does not follow the normal type, then malformations, as 
atresia, imperforation of a natural opening, as an imperforate 
anus, may result; abnormal position of viscera, a failure of 
the closure of the abdominal or thoracic plates may take place. 

The germ or embryo is first developed as a manifold mem- 
braneous expansion, the free margins of which incline towards 
each other, and eventually meet to form two cavities. A fail- 
ure to meet results in malformations. Fusion of parts may 
also take place. 

Those malformations in which there are supernumerary 
parts or duplications of almost an entire body are sometimes 
called composite or compound malformations and monsters. 



MALFORMATIONS 



293 



Hermaphroditism is a complete duplication of both male and 
female genital organs; that is, a single individual possessing both 
male and female genital organs. Pseudo-hermaphroditism is a con- 
dition in which the duplication is only partial. It is desirable that 
more scientific observations be made along these lines, in birds, 
and recorded. 

In Figure 115 is shown a photograph of the genital organs of a 
hen. It will be noted that there has developed two ovaries, two 
oviducts, and that both are functioning. In the embryo chick two 




Fig. 115. A Photograph of the Genital Organs of a Hen Showing Two 

Complete Ovaries and Oviducts. 

Courtesy of Prof. Rice. 



ova and oviducts, a right and a left, start to develop but the right 
ovary and oviduct atrophy and disappear before the chick is 
hatched, presumably because there is not space for two such 
organs to function at the same time. 

Figure 116 shows a drawing of a case of Holoacardius acephalus 
in a fowl. A holoacardius acephalus chick is one without a heart 
or a head. This is one of the extreme forms of acardius acephalus 
which fall under the head of omphalosites. These latter constitute 
a group of composite monsters in which the two individual parts — 
an antosite and a parasite — are in vascular communication by way 



294 



POULTRY DISEASES 



of a common placental region, or, in case of non-placental animals, 
as birds, through the vasculosa of the common yolk sac. 

The case being described was hatched from the same egg as a 
normal duckling. Externally the specimen consisted of very little 
more than a pair of hind limbs, which in contrast with the re- 





FiG. 116. Holoacardius Aoephalus. 
1, Pelvic rudiments; 2, fore limb rudiments. 



MALFORMATIONS 295 

mainder of the bird — if it is possible to term it such — showed a 
wonderful degree of development. The feet were scaled, the legs 
and the rudiment of the body were clad in down. The limbs had 
suffered considerable rotation which were not easy to analyze, and 
at one end of the body were shrivelled remains of the yolk sac. 

The axial skeleton was entirely absent. The main bones — the 
limbs excluded — were those of the pelvic girdle. A small lamina 
of semi-cartilaginous bone represented the sternum, while a few 
minute rods were apparently ribs. The pelvic rudiments consisted 
of two pairs of elements. Of these, two bones, presumably mor- 
phologically dorsal and the representatives of the ilia, were com- 
pressed rods fused into an irregular spong'^ mass as their acetabular 
ends, crossing at an acute angle. Below these and parallel to 
them were a second pair of fairly cylindrical bones distal to the 
acetabulum were free, and, to judge from the insertion of the 
omphalic remains between them and the supposed sternum, were 
directed posteriorally. The acetabula were very imperfectly formed, 
there being only rough depressions for the femora. 

The genesis of acardii is supposed to originate in the following 
manner: It is supposed that two embryos develop in one ovum, 
but that one develops more rapidly than the other. Vascular con- 
nections are established which in some way encompass the de- 
generation of the heart of the less advanced embryo, and therefore 
an only partial nutrition of its body. In the case of birds anasta- 
moses of the vessels of the vasculosa would probably be the 
cause of the malformation, while in the case of mammals the 
earlier formed allantois interpolating itself between the second 
allantois and the chgrion would furnish anastamoses with the 
former. 

Others consider that the inequality of the twins to a primary 
inefficiency of the parasite so incompatible with life that any de- 
velopment is only possible when a secondary connection, respira- 
tory and nutritive, is established between the two unequal twins. 

Such monsters as those having a double head, or four legs, etc., 
come from a single yolk which has two or more distinct germ 
vesicles. The double development of the anterior end is called an 
Anadidymus, the doubling of the posterior end is called an Kata- 
didymus, the doubling of both the anterior and posterior ends is 
called an Anakatadidymus, and the doubling in the middle is called 
an Mesodidymus or Hemididymus. As hinted before, the cause is 
due to conditions inherent in the fertilized germ cell. The origin 
of double and multiple forms in the vertebrates, common in birds, 
are the appearance of two or more embryonic rudiments on a 
single blastoderm, or, the presence on the egg of two or more 
separate blastoderms, germ vesicles, quite often seen in birds; the 
fusion, or dichotomy on the part of a single embryonic rudiment 
accounts for certain examples of duplication, such as two heads. 
The formation of certain axial structures, in two parallel sets on a 
single embryonic rudiment is apparently not found in birds, or, if 
found is exceedingly rare. In the formation of certain monsters it 
is probable that the two female germinal cells of a single yolk are 
both fertilized by separate spermatozoa and then during the period 
of ovogenesis fusion takes place, and through disturbance of nutri- 
tion one zygote becomes the more fully developed autosite, and 
the other, the imperfectly developed zygote, becomes the_ parasite. 

In Fig. 113 is shown a chick with two bodies, four wings, and 
one head, this is a Dipygus tetrabrachium. 



296 



POULTRY DISEASES 



In Fig. 114 is shown a rather common monstrosity, two super- 
numerary legs have developed just posterior to the normal legs 
This is a Polymelus. Ml 

In Fig. 117 is shown a photograph of a fowl 43^ months old, in f | 
which two supernumerary legs have developed. There is partial 




Fig. 117. A Dipygus of a Fowl, 4^/^ Months Old. 
Supernumerary hind limbs. Posterior dichotomy. Dorsal attachment. Courtesy 
of Mr. Laurie. 

fusion of the parasitic limbs, a, indicates a normal anus and an 
accessory anus is indicated at b. 

Figure 118 shows a photograph of a common white chicken in 
which there were developed two heads and two necks, a dicephalus. 
This is a photograph of the dorsal view. The two bodies are 



MALFORMATIONS 



297 




Fig. 118. A Dicephalus, Dorsal View of a 
Monstrosity Showing Two Necks and Two Heads. 




Fig. 119. A Dicephalus of a Muscovy Duckling With Two Heads 

AND Two Necks. 



298 



POULTRY DISEASES 




Fig. 120. A Dipygus of a White Leghorn 
Chick With Supernumerary Hind Limbs, 




Fig. 121. Dipygus, the Supranumerary Hind Limbs 

ARE VeNTRALLY ATTACHED. 



MALFORMATIONS 299 

joined ventrally. There was one umbilicus. The legs are normally 
developed as also is the caudal vertebrae. There are two ani. 

In Fig. 119 is shown a photograph of a common white duckling 
in which there are two heads and two necks. This is a picture of 
the ventral surface. This is another case of conjoined twins with 
separate ani and a common umbilicus. 

In Fig. 120 is a photograph of a White Leghorn chick in which 
there are developed two supernumerary hind limbs. This is a 
photograph of the ventral side. The limbs are ventrally attached. 
The supernuVnerary limbs are normally developed. 




Fig. 122. A Syncephalus in an Embryo 
About 16th Day of Development Show- 
ing Two Bodies With Legs, Wings, 
and Anus. 

In Fig. 122 there is shown an immature chick embryo about the 
sixteenth day of development. There are two complete bodies joined 
near the top of the sternum. In each twin the legs, wings, and 
anus are normal. The cervical vertebrae are not fused. Both necks 
are included in an outer skin. The head is malformed. There is 
one beak and the mandibles are long and abnormal. The orbits 
have a frontal aspect. When more or less perfect separation of 
the trunks and fusion of the heads occur the syncephalus results. 

The double-yolked eggs, in cases where two ova have been de- 
livered into the oviduct at the same time, and both being sur- 
rounded by albumen and finally one membrane and one shell, have 
been supposed to produce double monsters, but this is not the case 
as is shown by the records of eighty such eggs which were in- 
cubated, all from the domestic fowl, and in each separate twins 
were produced. In some eggs both chicks were males, and in 
others both chicks were females, and in still others one chick of 



300 POULTRY DISEASES 

each sex. In one case out of eighty one yolk developed a single 
chick and the other a double monster. 

A study was made of a double embryo in the egg of a goose, 
which had been incubated five days. This study showed a double 
primitive trace is actually formed on a single blastodermic layer 
proceeding from a single vitellus and vitelline membrane. This 
same work has been corroborated by other studies by those so for- 
tunate as to find these monstrosities in early stages of development. 

Compound monsters proceed from single germs which have sub- 
sequently undergone different degrees of dichotomy. They are 
governed in their development by certain fixed and invariable laws 
among which are unity of sex, homologous fusion and bilateral 
symmetry. In each case there is single sexuality. 




Fig. 123. A Chick With Only the Left Leg, the Other Leg Bud Must 

Have Aborted. 

The various forms of duplex development are determined by the 
extent to which the primitive trace is cleft, and also by the limita- 
tions of the dichotomy to the cephalic or caudal extremity of the 
neural axis. Either or both extremities may become bifid alone, 
as has been shown, and a double head, or still further bifid and the 
posterior extremities single or the posterior extremity become bifid 
and the anterior single. 

UMBILICAL HERNIA OF THE BABY CHICK 

Near hatching time the abdominal walls or plates come to- 
gether after the intestines and abdominal yolk sac has receded 
within its walls. In many cases it will be observed that appar- 
ently chicks die, from lack of vigor and in some cases from 
improper development, while piping out of the shell. If the 
shell is carefully removed, some of the cases may show a rup- 
ture, or, a lack of closing of the abdominal walls with evidence 



MALFORMATIONS 



301 



of injury in straining while piping out of the shell. At the 
umbilical entry into the abdominal cavity the part is very deli- 
cate and the abdominal wall is very thin, and is not reinforced 
with elastic tissue, as in quadrupeds, and if the membranes be- 




FiG. 124. Umbilical Hernia of a Baby Chick. 



come very dry and tough, the straining by the chick in its 
effort to free itself may prove fatal. Fig. 124 shows a hernia 
as a result of excessive straining in forcing its way out of the 
shell. No. 1 is the abdominal yolk sac which has been forced 
down through the umbilicus, at 2. 



CHAPTER XVII 

FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA 
FRACTURES 

Fractures or broken bones among birds in the poultry yards 
are of rather common occurrence, especially where birds are 
allowed to run with large animals on the farm or ranch, as is 
usually the custom, or where they are allowed to run in drive- 
ways and public roads. 

REPAIR OF THE FRACTURE OF BONES OF THE 
DOMESTIC FOWL 

This study is divided into three groups as follows : First, 
the structure and development of the bones of the domestic 
fowl; second, the kinds of fractures and the reparative proc- 
esses ; third, means of control of the bird and care of the frac- 
ture. 

THE STRUCTURE OF BONES 

In the gross study of bones we find that in the limbs as the legs 
and wings they form levers which have to sustain weight of the 
body and confer the power of locomotion, either during walking, 
running, or flying. The femur, tibia, and humerus are examples. 
The shaft of the long bone is narrow and contracted, which affords 
greater space for the bellies of the muscles. The extremities are 
generally somewhat expanded for greater convenience of motor 
connections, for the purpose of articulation and to afford a bony 
surface for muscular attachments. Some long bones are slightly 
curved, thus affording greater strength. 

Where there is required great strength and at the same time 
motion it is divided into a number of small bones. As an example 
we have the patella and the two carpal bones. 

Where the principal requirement is that of extensive protection 
or the need of large bony surface for the attachment of muscles, 
we find osseous structures expanded into flat bony plates, as is 
the case in the skull and pelvis. 

The respiratory apparatus of the domestic fowl consists of two 
lungs, which occupy the upper thoracic region, pushing out be- 
tween the ribs, and is made up of a series of air tubes and bladder 
like structures extending from them called air sacs. Some of the 
bronchi or air tubules communicate with air sacs or bladder-like 
structures located at the anterior thoracic region, others at the 
diaphragmatic region. Many of the bones of the fowl, as the 
head, vertebrae, and humerus, contain air cavities. The air sacs 
send extensions into these cavities. 

Bones of fowls nearly always develop from a connective tissue 
foundation. The inorganic substance of the bone is compressed 
in or between fibers of the connective-tissue, while cells of the 
latter are transformed into bone cells. Between fibers are calcified 



304 



POULTRY DISEASES 



bone cells, each of which rests in a cavity of the matrix, called 
lacujia. 

The bone cells have processes that anastamose with the processes 
of other cells. They lie in special canals known as canaliculi. 

The histological structure of the bone of the domestic fowl is 
similar to that of mammals, with the exception given above, and 
the reader is referred to any histology for further study and to 
Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl. 

REPARATIVE PROCESSES OF BONE 

A fracture of a bone may be defined as a sudden solution of 
continuity in a bone. The cause of fractures in a fowl are : 
First, injury or trauma, receiving a blow as from a stick or 





Fig. 125. Section Through Bones of Different Stages of Fractures. 
1, five days standing; 2 and 3, thirteen days standing. Note the provisional 
plug and the provisional callus. 

stone or being stepped upon by a large animal, as a horse or 
cow, or by the infliction of a gun shot wound ; second, muscu- 
lar action. Bones are most resistant to traction, next to pres- 
sure and less risistant to flexion or bending and least of all to 
torsion. External violence may be direct or indirect. In frac- 
ture from direct violence the bone is broken at or near the 
spot where violence is applied. As a rule the soft structures 
surrounding the fracture are more or less injured and more 
serious results may follow than in fractures by indirect vio- 



FRACTURES, WOUNDS, ANESTHESIA 305 

lence. In this kind of fracture the bone may be comminuted 
or fissured and perhaps driven into vital parts or organs, as 
the Hver or lungs, if the fracture be near these regions, or into 
the brain if in the cranial region. 

External violence is the most common cause of fracture in 
the fowl. The most common bones that are fractured are 
those of the leg and next those of the wing. 

Fractures may be classified as follows : First, simple frac- 
tures — those breaks in the continuity of the bone where the 
skin is not broken ; second, compound, also called open, or 
complicated fracture — those where the break is accompanied 




Fig. .126. A Photomicrograph of a Prepared Section of an Oblique Fracture 

OF THE Ulna of a Fowl. 

1, the fractured ends whicb have been placed in perfect apposition in the process 
of setting; 2, the provisional callus; 3, the provisional plug; 4, the intermediary 
callus; 5, the periosteum, one of the sources of new bone cells. 



by a break through the skin and soft parts extending to the 
seat of the fracture. 

A series of studies was made in this laboratory, of repaired 
fractures of fowls, of long standing, after which a series was 
made of the nature and rapidity of repair of fractured bones 
of the domestic fowl. The birds were chloroformed and the 
bones fractured and set while the birds were still under the 
anaesthesia. The metatarsus and ulna were selected. The 



306 



POULTRY DISEASES 



appliance that was used to hold the bones in place was cotton, 
one inch muslin bandage, wooden splints and glue. At the end 






Z 





Fig. 127. Roentgengraph of a Bone Just Fractured and Properly Set Indi- 
cated BY AN Arrow at 1, and a Fracture Improperly Set Showing Pro- 
visional Callus Filling in Around the Ends of the Bone 
AND Around the Fracture. 

of each experiment the bird was chloroformed and the bone 
removed. After a physical examination, the bone was sec- 



FRACTURES, WOUNDS, ANESTHESIA 307 

tioned longitudinally, photographed and the lesion of one-half 
cut out and placed in a ten per cent solution of hydrochloric 
acid for forty-eight hours for decalcification, and then passed 
through three changes of absolute alcohol ; then alcohol and 
ether equal parts ; then embedded in paraloid and sectioned. 

The sections were stained in hematoxylon and eosin and 
clarified in beechwood creosote, and mounted in Canada balsam 
for microscopic study. 





Fig. 128. A Rhode Island Red Pullet With a Broken Leg Properly Set 

Using Light Wood Splints, Cotton, One-Inch Muslin 

Bandage, and Glue, 



In a study of a fracture of the metatarsus of a Single Comb 
Rhode Island Red of eight days' standing, the following picture 
presented itself. The gross specimen showed a mottled reddish 
white zone in the region of the fracture indicating that immediately 
following the fracture there was extravasation of blood which had 
collected around and between the fragments and between the ends 
of the compact portion of the bone and had also invaded, to a 
certain extent, the marrow cavity. The fluid at this time did not 
give evidence of advance organization and was rather jelly-Hke 
allowing the fractured ends of the bone to fall apart by slight trac- 
tion. There was present the initial hyperemia or congestion of 
repair. This hyperemia was most marked in the periosteum. Leu- 
cocytes had invaded this part, as shown by microscopic examina- 
tion. Proliferative changes had taken place in the connective tissue 



308 POULTRY DISEASES 

and in fact this was observed in cases of only forty-eight hours 
standing. The most active cellular multiplication was in connection 
with the fibrous structure of the periosteum. This forms the 
germinative or reparative tissue from which arises osteoblasts. The 
nature of the new formed structure was that of connective tissue 
and is plainly shown in the photomicrograph. This picture shows 
this organization into trabecular-like arrangement forming the 
periosteal callus and the provisional plug. It can be seen that this 
had been formed and poured out from the periosteum. This field 
showed many fibroblasts and was packed with osteoclasts and in 
still other fields of the trabeculae a homogeneous matrix with 
formative bone cells in their lacunae. The repair was apparently 
one of intramembraneous bone formation with islands of newly 
formed bone at the end of the fifth day. 

Another study of a fractured metatarsus of thirteen days' stand- 
ing was in a one-year-old Single Comb White Leghorn hen, that 
was of low vitality and the reparative processes were more tardy 
than in a similar section of another case in which the bird was in a 
good state of health. After the metatarsus was removed it could, 
with considerable force, be made to spring, which was not the case 
with the latter specimen. Both birds showed the reparative process 
far enough advanced to have the cast removed with safety. 

From these two studies it is rather indicative that repair in the 
bone of the domestic fowl is quite rapid and that ten days to two 
weeks is ample time to allow the bandage or cast to remain on 
the fractured part. 

THE TREATMENT OF FRACTURES AND CARE OF 

THE FOWL 

In simple or so-called subcutaneous fracture of bones the 
fragments of the bone should be placed in perfect apposition. 
The normal shape of the bone should be restored as far as pos- 
sible. The loose arrangement of the muscles in the fowl makes 
this an easy task. 

The next step is to apply an apparatus holding the parts 
firmly in place while the reparative processes are being accom- 
plished. In applying the apparatus, the circulation must not be 
interfered with and the nerves must be safeguarded. After 
the setting is complete the bird must be provided with a clean 
coop and a grassy run where other birds cannot interfere. 
Good food and water should be provided and an occasional 
examination made to determine if all is well with the bone 
undergoing repair. 

If the fracture is on a feathered part, the feathers that are 
in the region to be manipulated should be removed. Next 
apply a thin layer of cotton, carefully holding the fractured 
parts in the proper position ; then apply about three thin, nar- 
row splints of wood of proper length in such a manner that 
they cannot chafe the leg and do injury to the skin. Next 
apply a one-inch cotton bandage, at the same time saturating 



FRACTURES, WOUNDS, ANESTHESIA 309 

it with glue. In a few hours the liquid glue will become hard 
and the parts will be firmly held in position. 

At the end of fourteen days, carefully remove the bandage. 
Confine the bird for a few days longer and then allow it to 
run in its accustomed quarters. 

As to feed, for the first two or three days after injury give 
easily digested feed, such as bread soaked in milk or wet mash. 
Later some grain may be fed, but only two light feeds should 
be given while the bird is in confinement. Pure, clean water 
should be kept before the bird at all times. 

WOUNDS 

Birds possess a high immunity to pyogenic infection, the 
germs that ordinarily infect the wounds of animals, and 
wounds, whether accidental or surgical, unless very serious, 
heal with great rapidity. The degree of tolerance of infection 
that the peritoneum of birds possess is probably not equalled 
by the peritoneum of any other domestic animal. For example, 
birds seldom die from infection after caponizing. Death when 
it does occur as a result of this operation is ordinarily due to 
hemorrhage. Men and animals, except the dog, survive ab- 
dominal operations only when done under aseptic conditions. 

Wounds should be cleansed with antiseptics as in mammals. 
Full strength iodin favors healing and is an excellent anti- 
septic. This is to be applied after the wound has been cleansed 
with water. 

ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF THE FOWL 

Chloroform may be administered by means of the carton a 
one-fourth pound can or bottle comes in. A small hole is cut 
in the bottom of the box to admit air and a small pledget of 
cotton placed in the box to absorb the chloroform. 

The hen is very susceptible to chloroform, quickly going 
under its influence and quickly coming out again. Care needs 
to be exercised lest too much be given and the bird die from 
an overdose. In administrating the chloroform the head of the 
bird is first thrust into the box. The bird usually struggles 
very little and is soon completely under its influence. The 
cover is then removed or held one or more inches from the 
nostrils as indicated by appearance of the bird. If an over- 
dose be given, open the mouth and resort to artificial respira- 
tion as with animals ; many are thus revived. 

Note is made of the respirations, or breathing, and eye re- 
flexes as in anaesthesia of animals. 

After the limbs are entirely relaxed an assistant holds the 
bird on its back or it may be tied to the operating table. 



310 



rOULTRY DISEASES 



A poultry operating table has been designed by the writer. 
This table consists of a top, see a in Fig. 129. The top is two 
feet wide and thirty inches long. This table is provided with 
four-inch cross-pieces as shown in the picture at c. These 
cross-pieces are located about half-way from the top to the 




Fig. 129. A Con'\imint Poultry Operating Iable. 



ground. These cross-pieces are provided with two awning 
hooks on either side. Holes are bored through the top at suit- 
able locations. The loop of the string is run through the hole 
on its respective side and over the legs or base of the wings 
shown at h, in the picture. The legs and wings are drawn 
down snugly to the top of the operating table and the free 
portions of the string wrapped around the hook and given a 
half hitch. 



FRACTURES, WOUNDS, ANESTHESIA 311 

INJURY TO THE STERNUM OR BREAST BONE 

If chicks are allowed to roost on small limbs of trees or 
sharp poles before the breastbone becomes sufficiently ossified 
there is likely to be a dent or curvature of the free margin. 

Fig. 130 illustrates this kind of an injury. The dressed car- 
cass from such a bird would bring at least two cents a pound 
less on the large city markets than if the breast was straight 
and presented a pleasing appearance. 




Fig. 130. Injury to a Sternum, a Result of Roosting on Some Sharp Object 

While Quite Immature. 

Other injuries as broken limbs with healing of the injured 
limb in a crooked position. This makes a deformed part which 
detracts from the nice appearance of a carcass. 

CURVATURE OF THE SPINE 

Deformed chicks may result from insufficient turning of 
eggs in the incubator during hatching. This deformity is 
partly due to adhesions and turning six to eight times a day 
largely prevents this trouble, or, the eggs may lie with small 
end up not giving the embryo sufficient space. Eggs, during 
incubation, should lie on their sides. If allowed to stand on 
end in the last days of incubation there is a possibility of some 



312 



POULTRY DISEASES 



chicks being deformed. The major deformity is of the legs, 
feet and toes. 

Curvature of the spine has been noticed as appearing rather 
suddenly during their developing stage and its true cause, 




Fig. 131. Curvature of the Spine of a Young Developing Chick. 
1, the Vertebra Showing a Decided Curve; 2, the Ilium; 3, the Ischium; 
the Pubis. 



4, 



whether due to injury or otherwise, has not been determined. 
This curvature is no respecter of breeds or varieties. It 
attacks the developing bird most at twelve to twenty weeks of 
age or at a weight of from two to four pounds. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

CASTRATION OF BIRDS OR CAPONIZING 

There are great possibilities in the more extended practice 
of capon production. The fact that there is a growing demand, 
making their value as a meat product superior to that of the 
cock or cockerel, and the fact that they bring about thirty cents 
a pound while the uncastrated J)ird brings only about fifteen 
cents a pound, together with the fact that they become very 
much larger, makes this phase of poultry production work a 
very remunerative one. 

The male bird after the removal of his reproductive organs 
loses his masculine appearance, takes on more of a juvenile 
look, becomes sluggish and gains weight rapidly as a result of 
his inactivity. 

From the loss of that internal secretion manufactured in the 
testes we note that there is the same difference which is ob- 
served in other animals under the same treatment. The de- 
velopment of the gelding as compared to the horse, and of the 
barrow as composed to the boar, are some concrete examples. 

The same improvement in meat is noted in the castrated or 
caponized bird as in the meat of the steer over that of the bull, 
or the meat of the barrow over that of the boar, hence capon 
raising is highly desirable and if properly managed is a profit- 
able undertaking. 

A capon of the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, or Rhode Island 
Red breed should weigh fully seven or eight pounds when eight 
months of age. 

Light capons are produced from Plymouth Rocks, Wyan- 
dottes and Rhode Island Reds, while the heavy capons are 
produced from the Brahmas and Cochins. 

The cockerel should be caponized when he weighs from one 
to one and one-half pounds, which will probably be about the 
eighth week if force fed or the tenth week if not force fed. 

If the birds are allowed to become too old before operation 
testes are too large and the removal of which may prove 
fatal to the bird. If the birds are hatched from March to 
May the operation could be performed in the months of June 
to September and with proper feeding and care these birds 
should then be ready to market from December to March. 

The equipment needed to perform this operation is a table 
as illustrated in Fig. 129. This table is provided with a means 
of confining the bird on the table. The instruments needed 



314 POULTRY DISEASES 

consist of a knife or scalpel with which to make the incision or 
cut through the abdominal wall, a hook for tearing through 
the peritoneum and abdominal air sac walls and, at times, 11 
through the mesentery and a spreader for holding the wound 11 
open while the removal of the testes is accomplished. ll 

The intestines may be pushed to one side by aid of the end 
of the scalpel. 

An improvised table may be made by taking a barrel, using 
two cords and two half bricks, or weights of sufficient size to 
hold the bird down. Such an improvised table is shown in 
Fig. 132. 

If the bird or birds are to be operated on in the forenoon, no 
feed should be given on the previous day. It is also well to 
withhold water as an abundance of water causes more hemorr- 
hage, ownng to the increased amount of liquid in the body 
tissues. It is rather difficult to accurately and satisfactorily 
operate when the intestines are full of feed. 

The operation is best performed in the bright sunlight un- 
less the operator is provided with a head reflector. 

The instruments should be kept in a shallow pan of anti- 
septic, or zenoleum, or a formaldehyde solution. A small 
amount of absorbent cotton should also be at hand. After the 
bird is confined pluck a few feathers from over the field of 
operation which is between the last two ribs. It is well to place 
a small piece of ice in the pan of antiseptic and use the ice 
water in sponging the field of operation. The cold water thus 
acts as an antiseptic as well as causing a contraction of the 
blood capillaries of the region and less hemorrhage will result. 
As the blood of the fowl coagulates in 30 seconds the hemorr- 
hage soon stops. 

When ready make the incision through the skin, then pull 
the skin over so that after the cut through the abdominal wall 
has been made the skin will close the hole in the abdominal 
wall. If it is the desire to make the cut through the skin and 
abdominal wall at one time pull the skin over, make the cut. 
and when the skin is released it will cover the hole in the wall 
of the abdomen. 

In making the incision through the skin the bird will struggle 
very little. The knife or scalpel should be very sharp and the 
incision made quickly to minimize the pain. The upper point 
of the incision should be about one-half inch from the center 
of the backbone or vertebrae. The incision should be about 
one inch long. As a nerve, artery and a vein pass along the 
posterior border of each rib, it is necessary not to cut to the 
anterior border of tlie last rib. 

A second incision is now made in the same wound, this time 



CASTRATION— CAPONIZING 



315 



cutting through the abdominal muscles. Care must be exer- 
cised not to cut too deep and injure the internal organs. If 
the peritoneum is not cut through this can be broken by aid 
of a hook and the spreaders inserted. Now tear through the 
walls of the air sac and push the intestines to one side and the 
uppermost testis will be in plain view. The testis will appear 
bean-shaped, about one-half inch long and yellowish-white in 
color. It lies close to the body of the vertebrae and large 
abdominal blood vessels, being attached by connective tissue. 
If it is the desire to remove both testes through one opening 




Fig. 132. The Top of a Barrel Can Be Used as an Operating Table, 

it is necessary to tear through the mesentery or web-like mem- 
brane supporting the viscera, care being taken to not make 
the opening too close to its attachment to the vertebrae or a 
large vessel may be torn and fatal hemorrhage may take place 
as a result of rupturing these delicate vessels. 

If the opening has been properly made the lower testis will 
be in plain view. Always remove the lower testis first as, if 
the upper one be removed first, some hemorrhage may take 
place that will make it very hard to find the lower one later. 
For beginners it is better to operate from both sides, each time 
removing the upper testis. To reach the lower testis tear 
through the mesentary about an inch from the vertebral at- 
tachment so as to avoid hemorrhage. The extractor can be 
passed through this opening and the lower testis readily 
reached. 



316 POULTRY DISEASES 

The testicular tissue is very soft and it is necessary to use 
great care to remove all of the tissue. If the testis is crushed 
it will be very difficult to successfully remove all of it so that 
it is necessary that the operation be done with skill. If care 
is not used often the end of the testis will break oflf and this 
part remaining will make a slip. This small particle will fur- 
nish some internal secretion and the bird can be regarded 
neither a cockerel or a capon. Slips are undesirable and when 
older can be recognised by the fact that they are neither the 
extreme juvenile appearance of a capon or the appearance of a 
cock. The accident may occur as follows : On account of 
the testis lying close to the vertebrae in close proximity to the 
abdominal aorta and other large blood vessels and the capsule 
of the testis being attached to them, too much traction or im- 
properly applying the tractors may result in rupture of the 
vessel and fatal hemorrhage occur at once. If the aorta is rup- 
tured there will be heard a hissing sound because the blood 
from the artery comes out in spurts as the heart forces it into 
the arteries in jets. Immediately the bird becomes pale in the 
face and comb and it immediately collapses. In this case cut 
off the head of the cockerel and the bird can be used as food. 
If the bird is allowed to struggle after the operation a large 
vessel already injured by the operation may rupture and fatal 
hemorrhage result. 

After the operation if the incision has been properly made 
no suture is necessary, but if the opening in the abdominal 
wall be large it is well to take one or two sutures with clean 
strile cotton or silk thread. A half curved needle with com- 
mon white thread will be satisfactory. 

After the operation is completed remove the bird as care- 
fully as possible and quietly place it in a clean coop or run 
bedded down with clean straw. Care must be observed in re- 
moving the bird from the table as often when they find their 
strings of restraint are loosened they struggle and such 
struggles often result in fatal hemorrhages. Do not allow the 
birds that have been operated on in coops or inclosures where 
they can jump upon boxes, perches or fly, as they must be kept 
down on the floor for a few days. 

Supply the birds with clean, fresh water and give them 
ground feed mixed with milk as soon as they are placed in their 
runs. They apparently do not suffer any inconvenience from 
the operation and will eat heartily immediately after. 

On the third day examine each bird to make sure there are 
no ''wind puffs" or emphysematous conditions, that is, air 
worked under the skin from the edge of the wound or incision. 
In some cases during the act of breathing, the cut acting as a 



CASTRATION— CAPONIZING 



317 



valve, air is gradually worked in between the skin and the body 
wall. If ''wind puffs" or emphysema is present puncture with 
a clean, sterile, sharp knife and allow the air to escape. It is 
best to make an X-shaped incision so that air will not again 
work in between the skin and body wall. Birds have a great 
resistance against the common germs of wound infection, as 
the staphylococci and streptococci and fatalities from this 
cause are very rare, if at all. 




Fig. 133. 1, a capon; 2, a cock. 

The wound should be entirely healed in less than three 
weeks' time. 

Fig. 133 shows a Barred Plymouth Rock capon and a Barred 
Plymouth Rock cock. Notice the difference in the head, plum- 
age and general appearance between the capon and the cock. 
Capons are usually marketed at about ten months of age. 
Force feeding is sometimes resorted to when they are marketed 
in a less time and are called soft roasters. 



OVARIECTOMY OF THE PULLET 

An unsexed, or spayed, pullet is called a poulard. Spayed 
pullets make more rapid growth without the handicap of egg 
production, at a later stage, and the meat is of improved qual- 
ity and flavor. The spayed pullet takes on some of the ap- 
pearance of a cockerel. The poulard, like the capon, becomes 
an outcast in the poultry yard, being shunned by hens and 
cocks alike, and is never known to cackle. 



318 POULTRY DISEASES 

The pullets are usually operated upon at about the same age 
as in caponizing the cockerel and usually in the late spring or 
early summer. The pullets are prepared in the same manner 
as the cockerels for caponizing. The incision is made in a 
similar manner as in the cockerel and the undeveloped tgg 
cluster or ovary in the pullet is found in a similar location to 
that of the testes in the cockerel. With a pair of artery forceps 
grasp the undeveloped oviduct, which will be observed to be 
about the size of a broom straw, and remove about one inch 
of this and the ovary. To do this a curved pair of scissors will 
be required. Care must be taken not to cut or rupture any of 
the large abdominal blood vessels lying just back of the ovary 
and against the vertebrae, a similar precaution as in capon- 
izing. The removal of a section of the oviduct and ovary pre- 
vents the further development of the tgg canal and function- 
ating of the cells of the canal and the formation of eggs. Pul- 
lets that have begun to develop eggs cannot be successfully 
operated upon. 

The after treatment is the same as for capons which see. 



CHAPTER XIX 

FOODS POISONOUS TO FOWLS 

THE ROSE CHAFER 
(Macrodactylus Subspinosus Fab.) 

In the spring of the year when the grapes are in bloom, large 
numbers of the common rose-chafers, or rose bugs, often ap- 
pear to feed upon the blossoms and later attacking the young 




Fig. 134. The Rose Chafer or Macrodactylus 
Subspinosus, Enlarged. 

and developing fruit and leaves of the plant. The beetle is 
about one-third of an inch long, of a light brown color and is 
covered by numerous lighter hairs. It is provided with long, 
spiny legs. This bug may also be found on roses, from which 
its common name is derived. It may also be found on other 
shrubs and upon apple, plum, cherry and peach trees. When 
numerous and its preferable food scarce, it may attack differ- 
ent grasses and grains. 



320 POULTRY DISEASES 

The bug passes through the four stages, namely : ova, larva, 
pupa and adult. 

It has been shown that when large numbers of these bugs 
are eaten by small chicks death may occur from their poison- 
ous efifects in from nine to twenty-four hours. It was found 
that fifteen to twenty rose chafers were sufficient to kill chicks 
seven days old in seven days ; twenty-five to forty-five proved 
fatal to chicks twenty-one days old. Chicks over ten weeks 
old did not die from their effects. 

The symptoms usually appear an hour after the bird eats 
a large quantity of these bugs. The first symptoms noted are 
those of a dozing attitude, the bird becomes weak, and finally 
prostrate and is unable to walk. Some may recover from the 
poison. Occasionally convulsions are noted in the dying chick. 
The poison appears to be a neuro-toxin. Post mortem does not 
reveal any lesions. 

Prophylactic treatment consists of keeping the young chicks 
away from parts of the premises that are infested by these 
bugs. 

ARSENICAL POISONING 

Arsenical poisoning may occur from the birds drinking spray 
mixtures containing paris green or other arsenical compounds, 
from eating rat poison, etc. Cases have been brought to our 
attention where birds had been poisoned by eating grass- 
hoppers. The grasshoppers had been given arsenic in bran, 
and the birds, devouring large numbers of them, became ill, 
and many birds died. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, black comb, dullness, sitting, 
moping and unsteady gait, increasing weakness and death. 
Judging from the effects of poisonous doses of arsenic on 
higher animals, the poisoned birds must have been in consider- 
able pain, but they did not show it ; birds do not manifest pain 
as other animals do. 

Autopsy. — The liver was normal, except that it was a trifle dark 
in color. There were no noticeable changes in the other abdominal 
organs, except the intestinal tract. Upon opening the intestines 
there were noted patches of hemorrhage and areas of congestion 
and inflammation. 

Treatment. — This is scarcely worth while. Demulcent 
drinks, as water, in which slippery elm bark has been soaked, 
or even milk, are indicated, after a full dose of castor oil. 

SALT POISONING 

Chicks do not stand a very high percentage salt. We found 
in some tests that the poisonous dosage was between one 
and one-quarter to one and one-half per cent in the feed. 
Older birds have not be^ji tested for the danger line, but it is 



FOODS POISONOUS TO FOWLS 321 

safe to say that the percentage in mash should not exceed one 
per cent. 

Salt seems to be a common poison, irate neighbors use, in 
wishing to kill the neighbors' hens which bother them. Many- 
such cases have been sent to laboratories for confirmatory 
tests. 

Poisoning among chickens and turkeys from eating common 
salt or drinking brine is quite common and the losses from it 
are large. It may occur from eating salt pork, or fish, or from 
drinking the brine left from freezing ice cream, and in many 
other ways. The symptoms and treatment vary but little from 
arsenical poisoning. 

A classical case has often been told in which a newly wed in 
baking a cake made a mistake and used common table salt in- 
stead of sugar. After the cake was baked and the mistake 
discovered the young housewife concluded to feed it to her 
nice flock of hens, consisting of twenty-three hens and one 
cock. All of the birds except the cock died. 

It has been determined that twenty-five grains of common 
table salt per pound live weight is sufficient to produce death 
in an adult bird. 

OTHER MINERAL POISONS 

Saltpeter poisoning, from eating fertilizer; phosphorus pois- 
oning, from eating rat poison ; lead and zinc poisoning, from 
eatting paint, and copper poisoning, from drinking bordeaux 
mixture, have been described ; all are infrequent. 

PTOMAIN POISONING 

Limber neck is one of those convenient generic terms which 
poultrymen sometimes apply to any ailment in which the bird 
is too sick to hold up its head. It is a very prominent symptom 
in all forms of ptomaine poisoning. However the term limber 
neck has been scientifically understood to mean only that con- 
dition due to a specific germ the Bacillus botulinus. 

Cause. — Ptomaine poisoning may be due to eating any kind 
of food in which putrefaction has set in, but is usually the re- 
sult of eating decaying meat or fish. 

Because of the more favorable conditions for the rapid 
putrefaction of meat in very hot weather, ptomaine poisoning 
occurs chiefly in mid-summer, and on farms where the fowls 
have an extended range, including patches of high weeds that 
effectually conceal dead animals, as rats, cats and chickens, 
from the caretaker, until the loss of a large number of individ- 
uals of the flock compels cutting the weeds and a diligent 
search for the carcass. 



322 POULTRY DISEASES 

The beginning- of ptomaine poisoning in a flock is usually 
something like this : During very hot weather a bird dies in 
the tall weeds, it may be from disease or from violence, and in 
three or four days its carcass is filled with maggots and in an 
advanced stage of decomposition ; it is found by the other birds 
and devoured, with the consequent death of many of them, 
some of them dying in out of the way places and remaining 
undiscovered by the keeper, and in turn poisoning others. 

Oftentimes the keeper is responsible for the beginning of 
the trouble by thoughtlessness, throwing some small animal 
which he has killed, opossum, weasel or rat, where the fowls 
find it. If the weather conditions are favorable to rapid de- 
composition, potmaine poisoning in the flock will result and 
the "vermin" dead will destroy more birds than ten of its kind 
would destroy during life. 

Eating maggots from manure piles where the organic matter 
is decomposing is a fruitful cause of death among fowls. 

Maggots are usually found in the crops of birds dying from 
eating putrid flesh, and if the poultryman holds autopsies on 
the dead birds, he is quite apt to conclude that the maggots 
have killed them. 

Treatment. — Give a tablespoonful of castor oil and one-fifth 
grain doses of sulphate of strychnin, the latter every four to 
six hours. 

Experiments have been conducted to determine the exact dosae^e 
of strychnin for an average-sized hen. It has been found that the 
dose should be from one-sixth to one-fifth of a grain, for an aver- 
age sized hen, three times a day. The writer has given, in solution, 
one grain on a full crop without ill effect. If the drug be given on 
an empty crop the absorption is much more rapid and larger doses 
are required where drugs are given with mash or on full crops. 

BOTULISM 

(Limber Neck) 

Botulism is a nervous disease in which there is prostration 

due to infection, through the food, of the Bacillus botulinus 

or germ causing so-called sausage poisoning. The germ lives 

in decaying animal or vegetable matter. 

Outbreaks of botulism have been studied among birds as well as 
among man and animals. In one case which is related fifty fowls 
were fed home-canned corn which had caused the death of a woman 
who had tasted it. In another case between fifty and one hundred 
fowls became paralyzed and died at the same time that a woman 
who cared for them had died of bulbar paralysis. Eight fowls, in 
another case, showed the same symptoms and died after eating 
home-canned string beans which had caused the death of a woman 
who had eaten them. And in still another case seven fowls died 
after eating home-canned apricots which had also caused the death 
of five people. 



FOODS POISONOUS TO FOWLS 323 

In all cases in human and fowls the symptoms and the course 
of intoxication were the same as those of botulism and in the 
histologic examination of one case, after autopsy, showed the 
typical thrombosis and hemorrhages which have been shown to 
be characteristic of the condition. The organism recovered from 
the fowls were identical in morphological and cultural characteristic 
to the Bacillus botulinus. The toxin from these cultures produced 
typical symptoms. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of limber neck or botulism are 
as f ollow^s : The birds become dull, inactive, refuse to eat, 
remain quiet ; their feathers are ruffled, and the bird gradually 
becomes weaker. This is manifested in the legs, wings and 
finally in the neck, so that the bird is unable to stand, drops 
the wings; the muscles of the neck are out of use and the neck 
is limber, the bird is sitting on its breast with its beak on the 
floor and finally complete prostration results and the bird lies 
listless on its side and in a state of coma or unconsciousness 
dies. Death usually occurs in less than twenty-four hours after 
taking in the poisonous feed. 

CORN COCKLE POISONING 

Chickens eating large quantities of corn cockle, in ground 
form, incorporated in their feed in the form of a mash, have 
been poisoned. 

The seed contains a poison, sapotoxin, which causes a severe 
inflammation of the entire digestive tract, including the crop. 
The bird gradually becomes weak, and as the poisonous efifects 
advance the bird graduafly becomes prostrate and dies in a 
state of unconsciousness or coma. 

ERGOT POISONING 

Ergot is a diseased condition of rye and other cereals, in 
which the grain becomes black, and often spur-shaped and 
several times its normal size. It is caused by a parasitic fungus 
the claviceps purpurea. 

Should ergot be ground and mixed with feed as described in 
the case of corn cockle sufficient quantities may be eaten to 
cause poisonous results. 

When sufficient quantities of ergot is taken in with the food 
an acute poisoning will occur. There may be convulsions, 
twitching of the muscles, a staggery gait, partial paralysis, in- 
tense thirst, and unconsciousness or coma followed by death. 

When a less quantity is taken in continuously there occurs a 
chronic ergot poisoning which is manifested by indigestion, 
diarrhea or constipation, and gangrene, especially of the de- 
pendent parts as the comb and wattles. Ergot is a powerful 
constrictor of the blood vessel walls and in these parts the 



324 POULTRY DISEASES 

circulation is gradually cut off and the comb or wattles turn 
black and falls off, usually a dry gangrene. Death of the bird 
may follow. 

WEEVILY WHEAT 

Weevily wheat, due to the small brownish-black weevil, if 
abundant in wheat, together with their dust which adheres to 
the grains, kill baby chicks. It does not noticeably injure older 
birds. 

BLACK LOCUST LEAF POISONING 

Birds become poisoned by eating the leaves of the black 
locust. 

Symptoms. — The affected fowl lies down, apparently par- 
alyzed, eyes half closed, comb quite red, and droppings thin, 
watery, slimy, and greenish in color, and containing strings of 
mucus and blood. The breathing is deep and heavy. Locust 
leaves fed to fowls experimentally cause death in from 12 to 
24 hours. 

Treatment. — Do not allow fowls to consume the leaves. 
Give cathartics, as epsom salts, and stimulants, as strychnine. 



CHAPTER XX 

POULTRY REMEDIES 

The average temperature of the domestic fowl is 107° F. 
The temperature of the fowl is easily disturbed by high or low 
atmospheric temperature, exercise, worry or fright. 

The average number of respirations of fowls are, for the 
male 20, and the female 36. The number of respirations is 
easily disturbed by worry, fright or high atmospheric tempera- 
ture. 

Blood pressure of the average sized utility cock, taken from 
the femoral artery, is 135 m. m. The average pulse rate of the 
average size utility cock is 350 times a minute. 

With the development of Veterinary Medicine there has 
come a knowledge of drugs and their applicability to diseases 
of the domestic fowl. The writer has devoted much time and 
thought to rational medication of fowls and has worked out a 
dosage of about fifty drugs based on the physiological and 
therapeutical application in disease. 

The following brief discussion of poultry materia medica 
and its therapeutic application is thought best in this volume. 

In medicating birds it will be well either to give the drug 
by the mouth in capsules or in tablet form, since in a large 
number of cases the liquids administered as such by the mouth 
find their way down into the trachea and bad results follow. 
Liquids may be mixed with mash or soaked in bread in cases 
where the fowl has not completely lost its appetite or where it 
does not object to the taste. 

In large flocks it is more practical to give the medicine either 
in the drinking water or mixed with the mash. 

The larynx of the fowl is not provided with an epiglottis 
and, in struggling birds, stands more or less open. 

Birds require a comparatively larger dosage to obtain the 
full physiological results than do mammals. A large amount 
of unsatisfactory medication of fowls in thp past has come 
through the lack of rational medication. 

POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 

ALOIN 

Source—A neutral principle obtained from aloes. 
Properties — Small acicular crystals, in color yellow to yellowish 
brown; odorless and bitter taste. 
Use — Cathartic. 



326 POULTRY DISEASES 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — For adult fowls, 1 to 2 grains. 

AMMONIUM CARBONATE (Smelling Salts) 

Source — A mixture of ammonium chlorid or sulphate, and cal- 
cium carbonate, is sublimed and resublimed. 

Properties — White, hard, translucent, striated masses, having a 
strong ammoniacal odor and a sharp salty taste. 

Action — A heart and respiratory stimulant. 

Indications — Acute bronchitis, pneumonia, or in colds. 

Dose — For an adult fowl, 20 grains given in a capsule. 

ARECA NUT (Betal Nut) 

Source — From the seed which resembles nutmeg in shape and 
color. 

Properties — A brownish powder. 

Action — Destroys intestinal parasites. 

Indications — Infestation of intestines with worms, and acts as a 
cathartic. 

Dose — For adult fowls, 5 to 10 grains, given in wet mash. 

ARGENTI NITRAS FUSUS (Lunar Caustic) 

Source — Melted silver nitrate, 3 parts, and potassium nitrate, 6 
parts, cast in suitable moulds. 

Properties — White, hard, solid pencils which appear finely gran- 
ular at a broken end. 

Action — A caustic. 

Indications — The pencil, lunar caustic, may be used to lighty burn 
ulcers in the mouth or head as in roup or sorehead. 

BARBADOES ALOES 

Source — The dried or inspissated juice of the Aloe vera. 
Properties — A hard mass, orange brown and opaque. Odor, 
saffron-like and a bitter taste. 
Action — A cathartic. 
Indications — Constipation. 
Dose — For adult fowl, 10 to 20 grains. 

BELLADONNA FLUID EXTRACT (Deadly Nightshade) 

Source — An extract of the leaves of Atropia belladonna. 

Properties — Blackish-brown liquid of characteristic odor. 

Preparations — Extract; fluid extract, and tincture. 

Action — A stimulant. Lessens mucous secretions. Small doses 
do not affect respiration but large doses make breathing quicker 
and deeper. 

Indications — Acute inflammation of the air passages as bronchi 
and lungs. 

Dose — To adult hen, five drops, repeated every three hours. May 
be dropped in the mouth by aid of a medicine dropper, 

CARBO LIGNI (Wood Charcoal) 

Source — Soft wood is charred by piling it in a heap, igniting, 
and covering it with sand and dirt to prevent rapid combustion. 

Properties — A black, odorless and tasteless powder or bits, free 
from gritty matter. 



POULTRY REMEDIES 327 

Action and Indication — It is indicated in indigestion, chronic gas- 
tritis, and intestinal catarrh and diarrhea. 

How Given — May be kept in compartment of dry mash hopper 
where the birds have access to it at all times. Use large size pieces 
for fowls and chick size for chicks. 

CASTOR OIL 

Source — A fixed oil expressed from the castor oil bean. 

Properties — A pale, yellowish and almost odorless, transparent 
viscid fluid and possessing an offensive taste. 

Use — A cathartic. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — Use tablespoonful to each four fowls. May be given in 
wet mash. 

CHLOROFORM 

Source — Alcohol and water are heated in a still to VJ !1° C, when 
chlorinated lime is added and choloform is evolved. 

Properties — A heavy, clean, colorless, mobile and dififusable liquid 
of a characteristic etherial odor, and a burning sweetish taste. 

Action — Anaesthetic. 

Use — It is used as an anaesthetic in preparing birds for opera- 
tion. Chloroform and ether are an excellent combination for 
anaesthetic purposes. 

COAL-TAR DISINFECTANT DIPS (Standardized) 

A standardized coal-tar disinfectant dip is a coal-tar distillate. 
Coal-tar dips may be standardized. In standardizing the dip its 
germacidal power as compared to carbolic acid is determined and 
its co-efficient expressed. Thus, for example, a dip with a co- 
efficient 5 would mean that its power to destroy germs is five times 
as great as carbolic acid. 

Source — Coal tar distillation products, the active principles of 
which are cresols and hydrocarbons. 

Properties — They are of rather thick, black tarry liquid which 
turns the water a milky color, due to the soapy emulsion that 
results upon the addition of the water. 

Use — A destroyer of germs and parasites. A dip of a co-efficiency 
of 5, as Zenoleum, is used in 4 per cent solution and at a tem- 
perature of 100 to 110°, or near body heat, as a dip for fowls to rid 
them of lice, or as a dip for other animals except cats to which it is 
fatal. To make this per centage consider that there are 128 ounces 
in a gallon and to each gallon there must be added approximately 
5 ounces or a large teacup full. It may be used in this same 
strength in spraying against lice and mites or as a disinfectant to 
destroy infective germs. 

CONVALLARIA FLUID EXTRACT (Lily of the Valley) 

Source — An extract of the lily of the valley plant. 
Preparations — Extract, fluid extract, and tincture. 
Action and Indication — Similar to digitalis. 
Dose — For adult fowl, ten to twenty drops. 

CREOLIN 

Source — Obtained from soft coal by dry distillation, its com- 
position is very complex. It is said to contain cresol and higher 
homologues of phenol. 



328 POULTRY DISEASES 

Properties — A dark-brown syrupy, alkaline liquid of a tarry taste 

and odor. 

Action — A powerful disinfectant, antiseptic, and parasiticide. 
Use — As a spray for poultry houses and equipment use five 

ounces to the gallon of water. 

CREOSOTE 

Source — A mixture of phenols and phenol derivatives, chiefly 
guaiacol and cresol, obtained during the distillation of wood tar, 
preferably of that derived from the beech. 

Properties — An almost colorless, yellowish or pinkish, highly re- 
fractive, oily liquid, having a penetrating, smoky odor, and a burn- 
ing, caustic taste. It usually becomes darker in tint on exposure 
to the light. 

A similar product can be obtained from the gas plants at a 
cheaper price for poultry use. 

Action — It is a strong preserver of woods as it is a disinfectant 
and a parasiticide. 

Indications — Infestation of the perch poles, dropping boards, 
nests, and other parts of the building with mites or other harmful 
parasites as chicken ticks, and fleas. 

Use — Use in a pure state. Paint on, with brush, all sides of the 
perch poles and if necessity requires, the dropping boards, nests, 
and walls. 

DIGITALIS FLUID EXTRACT (Fox Glove) 

Source — From the leaves of digitalis. 
Preparations — Extract, fluid extract, and tincture. 
Action — It strengthens the heart beat. 

Indications — It has a tendency to correct the rapid, weak, irregu- 
lar pulse. 

Dose — For adult hen ten to twenty drops. 

ETHER (Sulphuric Ether) 

Source — Obtained by distillation of alcohol with sulphuric acid. 

Properties — A transparent, colorless, mobile liquid, having a char- 
acteristic odor and a burning, sweetish taste. 

Action — To produce anaesthesia. 

Use — It is used as an anaesthetic in preparing for operations on 
birds. 

EUCALYPTUS, OIL OF 

Source — A volatile oil distilled from the leaves of the eucalyptus 
tree. 

Properties — A colorless or faintly yellowish liquid. It has a 
characteristic aromatic odor, and a pungent, spicy and cooling 
taste. 

Action — It is an antiseptic and a disinfectant, being three times 
as effective as carbolic acid. 

Indications — Catarrhal conditions of the nasal mucous mem- 
branes, and mucous membranes of the trachea and bronchi. 

Use — As a steam inhalation or as a spray or injection in catarrh 
and roup combined with other drugs, as follows: 

Oil of eucalyptus 30 drops 

Oil of thyme 30 drops 

Menthol 10 grains 

Oil petrol 2 ounces 

Mix and inject into the nasal passage. 



POULTRY REMEDIES 329 

FERROUS SULPHATE, COPPERAS (Green Vitriol) 

Source — Iron wire is dissolved by boiling in dilute sulphuric acid. 

Properties — Large, pale, bluish green, monoclinic prisms, without 
odor and having a salty taste. Changes to a fine powder on being 
exposed to the air. 

Action — Externally it is an astringent and stimulant. 

Indications — In a solution of one ounce to one gallon of water 
for wounds of any kind in the fowl. 

FORMALDEHYD (Formic Aldehyd) 

Source — Obtained by partial combustion of wood alcohol, without 
ignition, by evaporation of the spirit in contrast with a hot, platin- 
ized, asbestos plate. 

Properties — A pungent gas. Sold in aqueous solution, 40 per cent 
gas in water. It is volatile. 

Uses — A strong disinfectant. Used in about the same dilution 
as lysol for disinfection purposes. 

GENTIAN (Powdered) 

Source — Obtained from the gentian roots. 

Properties — A yellowish brown powder possessing a bitter taste. 
Action — Improves the appetite and stimulates digestion. 
Indications — Indigestion, loss of appetite, and malnutrition. 
Dose — Same as for ginger, which see. 

GINGER (Powdered, Zingiber) 

Source — From the roots of the Zingiber officinale. 

Properties — A yellowish-brown powder with bitter taste. 

Action — A bitter tonic. 

Indications — Indigestion, loss of appetite, malnutrition. 

Use — Combined for a tonic with other drugs, as follows: 

Powdered ginger 2 ounces 

Powdered gentian 2 ounces 

Powdered nux vomica 2 ounces 

Mix. 

Give one teaspoonful to each twelve fowls. Given twice daily in 
wet mash. 

GLYCERIN 

Source — A liquid obtained by the decomposition of vegetables or 
animal fats or fixed oils. 

Properties — A clear, colorless liquid of a thick, syrupy con- 
sistency, oily to the touch, odorless, very sweet and slightly warm 
to the taste. 

Action — Its affinity for water causes it to keep moist the surface 
to which it is applied. 

Indication — Inflammation or injury of the mouth, stomatitis, pip. 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Muriatic Acid) 

Source — From a distillation of sulphuric acid, sodium chlorid and 
water. The resulting gas is passed into distilled water. 

Properties — A colorless, fuming liquid of pungent odor, and an 
intensely acid taste. 



330 POULTRY DISEASES 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Dilute) 

Made by taking 100 parts concentrated hydrochloric acid, 219 
parts distilled water. 

Action — It aids digestion by stimulating the formation of secretin 
in the stomach and intestines and excites the activity of all the 
glands giving rise to the secretions concerned with digestive ac- 
tivity. 

In concentrated form it is caustic. 

Indications — Indigestion. 

Dose — One tablespoonful to each gallon of drinking water. 

LINSEED OIL 

Source — A fixed oil expressed from linseed or flaxseed. 

Properties — A yellowish, oily liquid, peculiar odor and bland 
taste. 

Use — A cathartic. 

Indication — Constipation. 

Dose — One tablespoonful to each six fowls. May be given in 
wet mash. Raw oil must be used. Boiled oil is poisonous. 

LYSOL 

Source — From that part of tar oil which boils between 190° and 
200° C, by dissolving in fat and saponifying in alcohol. 

Properties — A clear, brown, oily liquid of a feeble creosote-like 
odor. 

Action — Destroys germs and parasites. 

Use — One-half to two per cent solution in water to disinfect 
water or feed containers and to spray houses as a disinfectant. 

MAGNESIUM SULPHATE (Epsom Salts) 

Source — It is obtained from native dolomite, a double carbonate 
of magnesium and calcium. 

Properties — Small, colorless, rhombic prisms, without odor, and 
having a cooling, saline and bitter taste. Slowly becomes a fine 
powder in dry air. 

Action — A hydrogogue cathartic. A feeble diuretic. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — For adult fowls as a mild laxative, one tablespoonful to 
each twelve fowls. Best given in solution in water and this mixed 
with dry mash. One teaspoonful given by the mouth in solution 
will produce action in about four hours. 

MENTHOL (Peppermint Camphor) 

Source — Obtained from the official oil of peppermint. 

Properties — Colorless, acicular or prismatic crystals. It pos- 
sesses a strong, pure odor of peppermint. 

Action — Allays irritation. 

Indication — Catarrhal condition of the mucous membranes of the 
head. 

Use — Same as the oil of eucalyptus, which see. 

MERCURIC CHLORIDE, CORROSIVE 
(Corrosive Sublimate) 
Source — A heated mixture or mercuric sulphate 20 parts, sodium 
chlorid 16 parts, magnesium dioxid 1 part. 



POULTRY REMEDIES 331 

Properties — Heavy, colorless, rhombic crystals, odorless, and 
having an acrid or persistent metallic taste. Permanent in air. 

Action — A severe caustic. 

Indications — May be used in contagious bowel diseases of fowls 
used in the drinking water. To each gallon of water add 6 grains 
mercuric chlorid and 3 grains citric acid. It may be used in a 
solution of one, to one-thousand, as a disinfectant. 

MERCURIC CHLORID, MILD (Calomel) 

Source — Heat mercurous sulphate and sodium chlorid. Calomel 
sublimes. 

Properties — A white, impalpable powder; odorless and tasteless, 
permanent in air. Insoluble in water. 

Action — A cathartic. 

Dose — For adult fowl, 3 to 5 grains. 

NAPHTHALENE (Naphthalin) 

Source — A hydrocarbon obtained from coal tar by distillation be- 
tween 356° F. and 482° F. The impure naphthalin resulting is 
treated with sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxid, and is further 
purified by distillation with steam, and then by a mixture with 
strong sulphuric acid and finally by distillation. 

Properties — Colorless, shining, transparent laminae, having a 
strong characteristic odor resembling that of coal tar, and a burn- 
ing aromatic taste. It is slowly volatilized on exposure to air. It 
will kill lice in three-quarters of an hour. 

Action — An excellent destroyer of parasites. 

Uses — As a powder in nests to destroy lice. Dissolved in kero- 
sene, in from 5 to 10 per cent, to saturate perches to kill mites. 
Five per cent in vaseline as an ointment in scaly legs. This oint- 
ment gives good results in sore head. 

NUX VOMICA, POWDERED 

Source — From the seed of the Nucis vomicae. 

Indications — Indigestion, paralysis, loss of appetite. 

Action — Powdered nux vomica is a bitter tonic, increasing the 
appetite, gastric secretion, and motion. A nerve stimulant. 

Dose — For adult fowl, ten to twenty grains, repeated three times 
a day. May be given in capsule or dough ball. As a tonic, one- 
half ounce in mash to each 12 hens given three times a day. 
Twelve, "stroke measure," teaspoonfuls of nux vomica makes one 
ounce. 

PETROL OIL 

A neutral thick oil used as a vehicle in which to mix liquid 
preparations. 

PETROLATUM, VASELINE (Cosmolene) 

Source — A mixture of hydrocarbons, chiefly of the marsh gas 
series, obtained by distilling off the higher and more volatile por- 
tions from petroleum and purifying the residue when it has the 
desired consistency. 

Properties — A colorless or more or less yellowish, oily trans- 
parent liquid, without odor or taste; or giving off when heated, a 
faint odor of petroleum. 

Use — As a vehicle for other drugs in the preparation of oint- 
ments. 



332 POULTRY DISEASES 

PHENOL (Carbolic Acid) 

Source — Obtained from crude carbolic acid by agitation with 
caustic soda, heating to 338° F. and adding hydrochloric acid; then 
by agitation with sodium chlorid. digestion with calcium chlorid 
and distillation at a temperature between 336° and 374° F. and 
finally by crj^stallization, phenol results. 

Properties — Colorless, interlaced or separate, needle-shaped cry- 
stals, or a white crystalline mass, sometimes acquiring a reddish 
tint. It has a characteristic and somewhat aromatic odor and when 
it is greatly diluted with water has a sweetish taste. It goes into 
solution with a very small amount of water. 

Action — An antiseptic, and in five per cent solutions it is a para- 
siticide. 

Use — As an intestinal antiseptic, use one to two teaspoonfuls to 
each gallon of water. As a spray for poultry houses, use five 
ounces to each gallon of water. 

PODOPHYLIN (May Apple) 

Source — Obtained from the roots of the may apple. 

Properties — A fine non-cr3^stallizable powder. It is yellowish in 
color and possesses a peculiar, faintly, bitter taste. 

Action — A powerful, though slow, acting cathartic. In an experi- 
ment on baby-chicks, one-eighth grain doses proved fatal in 42 out 
of 43 tests. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — For adult fowl, one-fourth grain. 

POTASSIUM BICHROMATE 

Properties — It is a reddish-yellow crystalline potash product. 
Use — A pale, straw-colored solution in water is an astringent 
and is indicated in sore throat or in sore mouth. 

POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE 

Source — Caustic potash, chlorate of potassium and black oxid of 
manganese are fused together. 

Properties — Slender, monolithic prisms, of a dark purple color, 
odorless, and having a taste first of sweet but afterwards disagree- 
able and astringent. Permanent in dry air. 

Action — An intestinal antiseptic. 

Indications — In contagious bowel diseases, as fowl cholera. Make 
the drinking water bright red nearing a purple. About one ounce 
to each four gallons of water. In ulcers or sores use the pure 
crystals on the sore. 

PYRETHRUM (Persian Insect Powder) 

Source — The powdered flowers of the Pyrethrum roses. 

Properties — A coarse, greenish-yellow, pungent powder. 

Use — Destroys fleas and lice. It gives off a gas when exposed to 
the air that is a slow poison. It requires about forty-five minutes to 
kill lice. 

Indications — May be used to dust in hen's nests and on birds for 
lice. Only the pure product will give satisfactory results, and too 
liberal quantities should not be employed. Some depressing results 
have been observed when used too freely upon birds. 



POULTRY REMEDIES 333 

QUININE SULPHATE 

Source — Obtained by boiling cinchona bark with hydrochloric 
acid and adding lime to the filtered decoction. 

Properties — White, silky, light, and fine needle-shaped crystals, 
with bitter taste. 

Action — Retards metabolism and thus lessens the production of 
heat in the tissues. It dilates the vessels of the skin and therefore 
induces loss of heat. 

Indications — Cold, bronchitis, and pneumonia. 

Dose^For adult fowl, 2 to 3 grains three times a day. 

SANTONIN 

Source — A neutral principle obtained from santonica. Santonica 
is derived from worm seed. 

Properties — A colorless, flattened, prismatic crystal, odorless and 
almost tasteless. 

Action — Destroys intestinal parasites. 

Indications — Infestation of intestines with worms. 

Dose — For adult fowls, one-fourth grain. 

SODIUM CHLORID (Common, or Table Salt) 

Source — Mined in native state or obtained by evaporation of 
brine, spring, or sea water. 

Properties — Colorless, transparent, cubical crystals or a white 
crystalline powder with salty taste, permanent in dry air. 

Action — Essential constituent of the food, since it is necessary to 
the composition of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice and of 
blood plasma, from which it is constantly eliminated in the urine. 
Herbovorous and grain-eating animals require sodium chlorid in 
addition to that contained in their food. While the blood is rich in 
sodium salts, vegetables are particularly rich in potassium salts. 

Birds deprived of salt suffer from anemia and general weakness. 
Birds cannot tolerate large doses of table salt. 

Use — The mash should contain from one-half to one pound 
sodium chloride to each 100 pounds mash, and should be thoroughly 
mixed. 

SODIUM FLUORIDE 

Source — Obtained by the action of hydrofluoric acid upon sodium 
hydroxid, sodium carbonate, or sodium, with the formation at the 
same time of water and carbon dioxid, or hydrogen, respectively. 

Properties — Sodium fluoride is a white powder consisting of small 
crystals. 

Action — It is destructive to parasite life. 

Use — It is used as an insect powder working it into the skin and 
among the feathers. When put on the heads of young chicks it 
may cause ill effects upon the chicks. It will kill lice. 

SODIUM SULPHATE (Glaubes Salts) 

Source — The neutralized residue left in the manufacture of hy- 
drochloric acid from salt with sodium carbonate. 

Properties — Large, colorless, transparent mpnoclinic prisms or 
granular crystals, odorless and possessing a bitter, salty taste. 
Upon exposure to the air it gradually becomes a fine powder and 
loses its water of crystallization. 

Action — A cathartic producing a watery stool. 



334 POULTRY DISEASES 

Dose — One tablespoonful to each 12 adult fowls. Younger birds 
in proportion. It is best given dissolved in water and this mixed 
with mash. It is dangerous to attempt to pour liquids down the 
throats of fowls, as there is great danger of their passing into the 
superior larynx and down the trachea into the lungs. By opening 
the mouth of a bird and looking into the throat one can see the 
entrance into the air passage as it opens and closes. 

STRYCHNIN SULPHATE 

Source — The alkaloid or active principle of the nux vomica but- 
ton or seed. Strychnin sulphate is formed by the action of sul- 
phuric acid on strychnin. 

Properties — Colorless, transparent, octohedral or prismatic white 
crystalline powder. Odorless and with an intensely bitter taste. 

Action — A nerve stimulant. 

Indications — Paralysis. 

Dose — For adult fowl, one-fifth to one-fourth grain three times a 
day. 

SULPHOCARBOLATES OF CALCIUM, ZINC AND SODIUM 

Source — The action of sulphuric acid and carbolic acid on metallic 
zinc, sodium, or calcium. 

Properties — A white, crystalline powder. 

Use — In diarrhea, as an intestinal antiseptic. 

Dose — Of the mixture of equal parts of sulphocarbolates of 
calcium, sodium, and zinc, dissolve five grains in a pint of water 
and use as drink or with which to mix the mash. 

SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM (Sulphur) 

Source — Obtained from native sulphur by sublimation. 

Properties — A fine, yellow powder, having a slightly character- 
istic odor and a faintly acid taste. 

Action — Dissolved sulphur as in the lime and sulphur dip, in 
which seven pounds of unslaked lime is dissolved in twenty-one 
pounds of sulphur, and one-hundred gallons of water, is an ex- 
cellent destroyer of parasites. In a dry state it has no effect upon 
mites and perhaps none on lice. 

THYME OIL 

Source — A volatile distillate from the Thymus vulgaris. 
Properties — A thin liquid of characteristic odor. 
Use — In catarrhal conditions. See discussion under oil of euca- 
lyptus. 

THYMOL 

Source — A phenol occurring in the volatile oil of thyme. 
Properties — Large, colorless, translucent crystals of the hexagonal 
system. 

Action — Destroys intestinal parasites. 

Indications — Infestation by round worms. 

Dose — For adult fowl, three grains, followed by a physic. 

TOBACCO 

Properties — From a golden-yellow to a chestnut-brown, leaf con- 
taining an active principal, nicotine. The leaves of tobacco contains 
from 0.6 per cent nicotine in good grade, to 8.0 per cent nicotine 
in poor grade tobacco. 



POULTRY REMEDIES 335 

Use — Nicotine is very destructive to parasites, as lice and mites. 
Tobacco stems and leaves have no effect upon these parasites. Dry- 
leaves and stems placed in nests are useless so far as destroying 
parasite life is concerned. A decoction made bv boiling tobacco 
stems or leaves in water is destructive to parasites and contains 
nicotine in solution. As a spray, nicotine in one-fourth of one 
per cent solution will kill parasites. One-fourth of one per cent pure 
nicotine in dusting powder will kill lice. Finely triturated leaves 
and stems, as in the case of snuff, give off sufficient poisonous gas 
for lice that it will be destructive used as a dusting powder. Such 
finely pulverized tobacco should be incorporated in some vehicle 
as plaster of paris using not more than 10 or 15 per cent of the 
tobacco. 

WORM SEED, OIL OF 

Source — Obtained from santonica. 

Properties — A volatile oil, yellowish in color with characteristic 
odor. 

Action — Destroys worms. 

Indications — Intestinal worms. 

Dose — For adult fowl, one teaspoonful to each twelve birds. 

ZINC SULPHATE 

Source — Prepared by dissolving metallic zinc in sulphuric acid. 

Properties — Colorless, transparent, rhombic crystals, without 
odor, and having an astringent, metallic taste. Changes to a fine 
powder when exposed to the air. 

Indications — One per cent solution in distilled water and two or 
three drops in the eye in case of inflammation or conjunctivitis. 



LIST OF DOSAGE OF DRUGS FOR ADULT FOWLS 



Name of drug. Lethal dose. Maximum dose. 

Quinine siilph. & bisulph 3 grains 

Ferrous sulphate 30 grains 

Carbo ligni 10 grains 

Phenol 4 grains 2 grains 

Magnes. sulph 1 dram 

Pott, dichromate and 

permang 30 grains 15 grains 

Sodium chloride 2.5 drams 1 dram 

Thymol 3 grains 

Calcium phos. precip.. 1.25 drams 0.5 dram 
Potass, chlorate, sulph. 

and iodid 1/20 grain 

Sodium bicarb 20 grains 

Ferrous oxide 5 grains 

Mercury bichloride.... 4 grains 1 grain 

Potass, tartrate 10 grains 

Oil turpentine 1 dram 

Sulphur 5 grains 

Mustard 10 grains 

Nux vomica 1 ounce 2 drams 

Gentian 4 drams 

Ginger 5 drams 

Wormseed oil 10 minims 

Capsicum 5 grains 

Anise Vs grain 

Quassia Vs grain 

Strychnine sulph 1 grain H grain 

Aloin 2 grains 

Ammonia carb 20 grains 

Areca nut 10 grains 

Belladonna F. E 10 minims 

Castor oil 1 tablesp'nful 

Convallaria F. E 20 minims 

Digitalis F. E 20 minims 

Calomel 10 grains 

Podophyllin V2 grain 

Santonin 3^ grain 

Sulphocarbolate of calc ^ grain 

Sulphocarl)()late of zinc ^ grain 

Sulphocarbolate of 

sodium y2 grain 



Minimum dose. 

1 grain 
10 grains 

5 grains 
0.5 grain 
0.5 dram 

2 grains 
0.5 dram 
0.5 grain 

0.25 dram 

1/40 grain 
10 grains 

1 grain 
1/10 grain 

5 grains 
0.5 dram 

2 grains 
5 grains 

0.1 dram 
0.2 dram 
0.3 dram 
5 minims 
1 grain 
1 grain 
1/16 grain 
1/6 grain 
1 grain 
10 grains 
5 grains 
5 minims 
1 teasp'nful 
10 minims 
10 minims 
5 grains 
H grain 
14 grain 
14 grain 
H grain 

14 grain 



INDEX 



Page 
A 

Abdominal tumors, caseous 269 

Yolk sack y 

Abnormal eggs • • • ^^^ 

Abortion, epiornithological ^J^ 

Abscess of the foot ^^-^ 

Acantha inodora |^^ 

Acanthocephala ^^'1 

Acarids -,5 c 

Achorion schoenlemu ^^J 

Adenoma '^^o 

Adrenal glands ^^ 

Adult connective tissue tumors ^5^ 

Epithelial tumors ^^^ 

Air sacs • q.. 

Air sacs, disease ^^ 

Inflammation • • • • • j^ 

Purulent ^■^•^^ ^^^ 

Aloin 

Ameba meleagridis :^j^^ 

Anaesthesia "^^^ 

Anatomy of fowl ii 

Visceral ^c? 

Angioma ^», 

Angiochohtis ^^^ 

Animal food ^t. 

Antiseptic, intestinal oo 

Antitoxin •••••- 

Anus, ulceration ^^^ 

Aphtha ^227 

Apoplexy .- ; - „^ 

Apoplectiform septicaemia i/o 

Arsenical poisoning ^^^ 

Argas miniatus ^^ 

Arthritis ^^° 

Ascaris inflexa J^^ 

Ascites ^p,g 

Avian diphtheria • • • • ^^^ 

Aspergillus, fumigatus ■■■■■■•]^^°' H'^ 

Aspergillosis 106, 192, 2Uj 

Asthma ^I o 

Asthma, of canaries •^^° 

Asthenia • ^_, 

Atmospheric surroundings o-^ 

B 

Baby chick, health 62 

Bacterial diseases |0^ 

Bacterium sanguinarium io^ 

Pullorum \(^^ 

Chick infection |/^ 

Adult fowl infection W 3 

Bacteria, intestinal -"^ 

Bacillus avisepticus i°° 

Botulinus ^"g 

Coscoroba t^Z 

Tuberculosis \°\ 

Bacillary white diarrhea j/ ^ 

Baldness ..^y 

of canaries !riL 

of fowls ^.^ 

Beaks, broken t']!. 

Bed bug of poultry '■^^ 



Page 

Bee stings 1^4 

Bermuda grass 1° 

Birds, fever 1°^ 

Number per acre ^o 

Blackhead \^^ 

Blastomycetes j^^ 

Blastomycosis of goose i'J/ 

Blood ii 

Cells ,-^1 

Diseases ^^^ 

Vascular system ^^ 

Vessels, rupture -^^^ 

Body lice !^ ^ 

Bones, of skeleton A^ 

Structure "f^^ 

Botulism "^3^ 

B^^^V V.V.:.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 36 

i 3.rts -t Qo 

Brooder disease ^^ 

Broken beaks 205 

Bronchitis 27 

Bursa of fabricus • ^^^ 

Bursitis • 

C 

Caecal worms HI 

Calculi \]l 

Canary bird asthma ^^» 

Cholera 1»4 

Respiratory diseases '^^° 

Septicaemia 1°^ 

Canary, intestinal worms 1^^ 

Louse °^ 

Typhoid j»^ 

Canker of anus onq oA 

Fowls 209, 213 

Pigeons ^^9 

S;:r;h-V.V.-.V.V.V.-.V.-.V.V.-.147V202 

of Crop 1" 

Mouth ^^ 

Cavities, nasal ^° 

Caponizing y^i 

Caicinoma ■£ ^ , 

Castration "^^J 

Cerebrum -^ 

Cerebellum ^° 

Cerebro-Spinal System ^o 

Chanota infundibuhformis |^^ 

Chicken bug J^^ 

Cholera •••209 

Pox 73 

Chigger . 22I 

Cholecystitis j^^ 

Cholera „ . 

of Canaries tVl 

Chickens {°^ 

Swans 254 

Chondroma ., ^ , 

Cimex lectulanus -^"^ 

Circulatory system ^^ 

Cloaca ICQ 

Cloaca, eversion J^^ 

Cloacitis 



338 



INDEX 



Page 

Coccidian white diarrhea 128 

Coccidiosis 126 

of Adults 129 

Chicks 128 

Geese 129 

Wild ducks 131 

Renal , 132 

Coccidium avium 126 

Colds 202 

Colobacillosis 181 

Combs, frozen 245 

Composition of eggs and shell 289 

Compound tumors 260 

Commercial unit 57 

Congestion of liver 220 

Lung 206 

Connective tissue tumors.. 254 

Conjunctivitis 245 

Constipation 162 

Contagious Bronchitis 206 

Catarrh 208 

Epitheliomas 211 

Inflammation of air sacs of geese. 208 

Corcomonas, hepatitis 132 

Cord, spinal 36 

Corn cockle poisoning 323 

Cornea, ulceration 244 

Corrhyza 208 

Crop bound 149 

Catarrh 153 

Gangrenous 152 

Pendulous 151 

Crossbeak 246 

Croupous inflammation of pigeons.. 147 

Curvature of spine 311 

Cytodites nudus 91 

D 

Davainea echinobothrida 124 

I'etragona 123 

Deficiency disease 279 

Degeneration of liver 219 

Depluming lice 81 

Scabies 87 

Dermanyssus Gallinae 93 

Dermis 42 

Diarrhea 64, 162 

Simple 162 

Digestive tract 22 

Diseases 145 

Diphtheria, Avian 209 

Diphtheric inflammation of eye 244 

Roup 213 

Sore eye 215 

Diphtheritis 209 

Diseases of liver 219 

Ovary 223 

Oviduct 223 

Disinfection 59, 67, 70 

of Houses 59, 67 

Yards 70 

Disinfestation 67 

Dispharagus laticeps 119 

Nasutus 119 

Spiralis 119 

Disposal of dead birds 72 

Dizziness ^^77 

Double yardage system 56 

Dove cote bug 103 

Dove hemorrhagic septicaemia 179 

Drepanidotaenia infundibulus 121 

Drinking vessels 65 

Dropsy 156 



Page 

Droopy wings 126, 128 

Duck lice 79 

Dusting hens for lice 85 

Dysentery 163 

E 

Echinorhynchus polymorphus 125 

Egg, bound 223 

Development 48 

Eggs, abnormal 226 

Bacteria 287 

Blood specks 228 

Composition . . . ^ 287 

Dwarf 228 

Double 227 

Multiple shell membranes 227 

Parasites 289 

Shell composition 289 

Soft shells 226 

Triple yolks 227 

Yolkless 226 

Eimeria avium 126 

Endocarditis 237 

Enlarged crop 151 

Enteritis 163 

of Pheasants 178 

Entero-hepatitis 134, 222 

Epilepsy 278 

Epiornithological pulmo-pericarditis 

of turkeys 178 

Epithelioma 253 

Epithelioma contagiosum 211 

Epithelial tumors 252 

Adult 252 

Embryonic 252 

Equipment, poultry house 58 

Esophagus 24 

Eversion of cloaca 159 

Oviduct 159, 223 

Exercise essential 57 

External parasites 75 

Eyes 39 

Diphtheric inflammation 244 

F 

Fabricus, bursae of 27 

False tuberculosis 191 

Fatty degeneration 219 

Infiltration 219 

Feathers 42 

Feather parts 42 

Feed 64, 65 

Fibroma 2S6 

Filaria tite 119 

Fleas 98 

Floor of poultry houses 58 

Flukes 125 

Food poison 319 

Fountains, drinking 68 

Foot, mange 88 

Treatment 90 

Fowl, cholera 165 

Pest 181 

Typhoid 169 

Fractures 303 

Repair of 304 

Setting 308 

Treatment 308 

Frozen combs 245 

Fruit trees for shade 57 

Fungi 104 



INDEX 



339 



G ^^^^ 

Gall bladder 28 

Gangrene, of crop 152 

of foot 242 

pry 235, 242 

Moist 242 

Gapes lis 

Gape worms 1 1 5 

Gasseous crop 151 

Geese lice 79 

General diseases 231 

Gizzard 25 

Inflammation 157 

Worms 114 

Glands 32 

Adrenal 32 

Carotid 32 

Thymus 36 

Glandular stomach 25 

Going- light 195 

Goniocotes gigas 77 

Goniodes damicornis 79 

Dissimilla 78 

Styhfer 78 

Gout of fowls 197 

Grass runs 56 

Grouse disease 18 

H 

Head 17 

Lice 80 

Health of chicks 62 

Heart 33 

Rupture 241 

Hearing, organs 40 

Hematoma 257 

Hemangioma 257 

Hemorrhage of brain 277 

Egg 228 

Internal 241 

Hemorrhagic septicaemia of the 

dove 179 

Hemiplegia 279 

Hermaphrodite 119 

Hepatitis 221 

Heterakis compressa 118 

Differens 118 

Maculosa 118 

Papillosa 112 

Perspicillum 110 

Honey comb ringworm . 105 

Horny growth 267 

Houses, poultry 57 

Hyperplasia 239 

Hyperplasia of Intestine 239 

Hypertrophy 239 

Hyphae 105 

I 

Immunity 60, 61 

Acquired 60, 61 

Natural _. 60, 61 

Impaction of baby chicks 151 

Canaries 151 

Crop 149 

Intestine 150 

Incubation, effects on health of 
chick 62 

Indigestion 154 

Infectious blood diseases 165 

Constitutional diseases 87 

Enteritis of pheasants 178 



Page 
Leukemia jgg 

Necrosis of canaries .'.'** *'l83 

Inferior larynx ' " ' 29 

Infiltration, fatty of liver!.! 219 

Inflammation of the bile ducts! !!"221 

Crop J 53 

Eyes of ducks 244 

Gizzard ! ! ! ! ! 1 57 

Joints of geese !!!!!!!! 185 

Ducks 135 

Lpngs !!!!!!!!!!!!!!207 

Liver 01Q 

Mouth !!!!!!!!' 147 

Oil, gland !!!!!! !243 

Productive ! ! ! ! ! 24 1 

Ingluvitis !!!!!!!!! 1 53 

Injury to Sternum !!!!!!! 3 1 1 

Internal hemorrhage ! ! !241 

1 nternal, acanthocephala ....!!!!!! 124 
Echinorhynchus ! ! ! 125 

Flukes !!!!!!! 125 

Nematodes 109 ' 124 

Notocotyle verrucosum .' . 125 

Parasites ! 109 

Worms 109, 110," riV,'ll2 

Intestine 26 

La^^e !!!!!!!!!!! 26 

Small 26 

Intestinal antiseptics ! ! ! ! 66 

Bacteria 285 

Diseases of canaries 162 

Intussusception 161 

Invagination of bowel ! ! ! 1 6 1 

J 

Jaundice 222 

Jigger 93 

K 

Keratitis 215 

Kidney 53 54 

Kline's bacillus .'170 

Disease ! 159 

L 

Large intestines 26 

Larynx * ' * 29 

Inferior ! ! 29 

Superior 29 

Leg weakness 273 

Leucocy tozoon of ducks 133 

Leukaemia 159 

Leukaemia, myeloid 172 

Lice 75', 76 

Lice, body yy 

Effects on fowls of 83 

Examination for 84 

How eradicate 84 

Multiplication of 82 

of ducks 79 

Geese 79 

Head and neck 79 

Pigeons 79 

Turkeys 73 

Lime 60, 71 

Limbs 20 

Limberneck 322 

Lipeurus baculus 79 

Infuscatus 80 



340 



INDEX 



Page 

Jejunus 79 

of canaries 80 

Polytrapezius 79 

Squalidus 79 

Variabilis 81 

Lipoma 254 

T • 71 

Liver ^' 

Abscess 222 

Amyloid degeneration 222 

Aspergillosus '^'^^ 

Congestion • 220 

Cercomoniasis 222 

Diseases 219 

]nflanimation 221 

Nutmeg 221 

J aundice -^^ 

Rupture 220 

Tumors 222 

Location of plant 56, 54 

Locust poisoning 324 

Lousiness 75 

Lungs 30 

Congestion 206 

Inflammation 207 

Lymphoma 257 

Lymphangioma 257 

Lymph vessels ^36 

Lyrapho-sarcoma -ol 

M 

Malaria '^W 

Male reproductive organs 51 

Malformations 291 

Materia medica 3-5 

Megrims 1^'^ 

Medicines 3-5 

Menopon biseriatum ' ' 

Obscurum 77 

Pallidum ••• 79 

Mites ^7, Ji 

Modern houses A^' 

Mold 10^ 

Monstrosities ^^^ 

Mouth Ai 

Mycelium |^^ 

Mycosis of pigeons j^^ 

Myeloid leukaemia y ■- 

Myelitis " ,7 

Myocarditis t\. 

~\it' .... 2.TO 
Myoma 257 

Myxoma ■ ^^ , 

Myxosarcoma "^""^ 

N 

Nasal cavities 28 

Natural resistance 6U 

Neck lice ^^ 

Nephritis ^ ^^ 

Nerve diseases -^^ 

Nervous system •^o 

Nests \ 

Nodular taeniasis |23 

Notocotyle verrucosum '-^ 

Number birds per acre ^o 

Nutmeg liver ^-^^ 

O 

Obstruction of beak 146 

Crop 49 

Intestine j" ■'y 

Trachea "^'1 



Page 

Oidium albicans 105 

Oil glands, inflammation of 243 

Olfactory nerve 41 

Open front house 57 

Joint 247 

Operating table 310 

Organs of the fowl 15 

Hearing 40 

Hen 45 

Pullet 44 

Reproduction 43, 51 

Smell 41 

vSpecial sense 39 

Taste 42 

Touch 42 

Oocyst 126 

Osteoma 254 

Osteitis 246 

Osteo arthritis 185 

Osteology 14 

Ossification of tendons 256 

Ovary 45 

Ovariectomy 317 

Ovum 45 

Development 45 

Oviduct 47 

Broken Eggs in 225 

Eversion of 159, 223 

Function of 47 

Obstruction of 223 

Prolapse of 223 

Parts of 47 

Rupture of 225 

Ulceration of 225 

P 

Pancreas 28 

Papilloma 252 

Paralysis 274 

Anterior cocklear nerve 281 

Cochlear nerve 281 

Vestibular nerve 281 

Wings of pigeons 276 

Parasites 75 

External 75 

Internal 109 

Parasiticides 95 

Parrot Septicaemia 180 

Parched tongue 146 

Pendulous crop 151 

Perch poles 59, 60 

Proof against mites 60 

Pericarditis 236 

Peritonitis 156 

Pest, fowl 181 

Pharynx 23 

Pharyngitis 203 

Ulcerative 203 

Phthiriasis 75 

Pica 154 

Pigeon lice 79, 80 

Paralysis of wings 276 

Septicaemia 180 

Pip 146 

Plasmodium danielewskyi 134 

Pneumonia 106, 207 

Pneumomycosis 106, 192 

Poisons 319 

Arsenic 320 

B. Botulinus 322 

Corn cockle . . 323 

Ergot 323 



INDEX 



341 



Page 

Locust leaves 324 

Ptomain ^21 

Rose chafer 319 

Salt 320 

Weevil 324 

Polyneuritis 279 

Polypus 271 

Poultry house equipment 58 

Poultry plant site 55 

Poultry remedies 325 

Pox of turkeys 243 

Proctitis j^^ 

Prolapse of Caecum 159 

Oviduct 159 

Protozoa • | -^^ 

Ameba meleagridis '^^^ 

Blackhead 133 

Coccidiosis |26 

Entero-hepatitis ^■■^^ 

Liver of pigeon J3- 

Leucocytozoon of ducks 133 

Malaria of fowls ]^J' 

Renal 132 

Trichomoniasis j-t^ 

Trychosomiasis 133 

Pseudo-tuberculosis 1^1 

Psittacosis l^Y 

Ptomain poisoning 3/1 

Pulex avium • • ^^ 

Purulent inflammation of abdomen.. /31 
Purulent inflammation air sacs.... 233 
Pus of fowls 15' 

Q 

Ouail diseases 1°1 

R 

Rectum 26 

Red mites 93 

Remedies 325 

Reproductive organs . . . •. 43 

Female 43 

Male 51 

Renal coccidiosis 1^^ 

Resistance, natural 60 

Respiratory disease of canaries 218 

Tract 28 

Restraint of fowls 309 

Rheumatism 276 

Ringworm l'^^ 

Rose chafer 319 

Roof of house VnV?1^ 

Roup 209, 215 

Chronic carrier '^y 

Diphtheric 21^ 

Rmis and buildings 56 

Rupture, blood vessels /41 

Heart 241 

Liver 220 

Oviduct • ^^^ 

S 

Sacs, air ^J 

Saccharomyces albicans ^^^ 

Salt poisoning "^-^ 

Sanitation .,-(- 

Saprophytes ^"^ 

Sarcoptes mutans J^° 

Sarcoma „^j- 

Sarco-chondro-osteoma ^o^ 

Sarcocyst ^^'^ 



Page 

Sarcopsylla gallinacea 100 

Laevei 87 

Scabies 87 

Depluming 87 

Scaly eggs 88 

Schizogony 127 

Sclerostoma syngamus 115 

Scratch material 57 

Secretion, kidney 53 

Urinary 53 

Segmented worms 119 

Sense organs 39 

Septicaemia of canary birds.. 183, 184 

Parrots 1 80 

Pigeons 180 

of fowls 176 

Septic fever 183 

of cage birds 184 

Shade, kind 55 

Sick birds, disposal of 72 

Site for poultry plant 55 

Skeleton 14 

Skin 42 

Cancer 253 

Sleeping disease 177 

Small intestine 26 

Smell organs 41 

Sod disease (dry gangrene of feet). 235 

Soil best suited for fowls 56 

Sore eye 215 

Head 209 

Mouth 105,' 147 

Special Sense 39 

Spermatozoa 53 

.Spinal cord 3^ 

Spirillum Metchnikovi 187 

.''Spirochetosis 1 S6 

Spiroptera hamulosa 114 

Spirocheta gallinarum 186 

Spleen 28 

Sporozoa 126 

Square feet per bird 56 

Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. ... 185 

Stick tight flea 100 

Stomach 25 

Glandular 25 

Muscular 25 

Stomatitis 147 

Streptococcus capsulatus 176 

Gallinarum 177 

vSunshine in house 59 

Swollen eye 209 

Head 209 

of Turkeys 243 

Joints of geese 18=^ 

Syngamus bronchialis 115 

Trachealis 115 

T 

Taenia, description 121 

Echinobothrida 124 

Infundibuliformis 121 

Life history of 122 

Treatment of 122 

Symptoms of 122 

Tapeworms 119 

Taste organs 42 

Testes 51 

Tendon Ossification 256 

Thornheaded worm 124, 125 

Thrombosis 242 

Thrush 105 

Ticks 101 



342 



INDEX 



Page 

Tinea favosa 105 

Touch organs 42 

Trachea 30 

Obstruction 120 

Trees 56, 57 

Trichomoniasis 126 

Trematoda 125 

Trichomonas pullorum 126 

Trichosomum contortum 118 

Trinoton continuum 79 

Trombidium holosericeum 93 

Trunk 19 

Trypanosomiasis 133 

Tuberculosis 187 

False 191 

Turkey lice 78 

Tympany of the crop 151 

Typhoid, of fowls 169 

Tumors 249 

Adenoma 252 

Angioma 257 

Benign 252 

Carcinoma 252 

Cysts 267 

Connective tissue tvimors 254 

Compound 260 

Classification of 250 

Chondroma 254 

Epithelioma 253 

Frequency of 249 

Fibroma 256 

Horny growths * 267 

Hematoma 257 

Lipoma 254 

Malignant 250 

Myoma 250 

Myxoma 257 

Lymphoma 257 

Kinds of 250 

Osteoma 254 

Papilloma 252 

Polypus , 271 

Sarcoma 259 

Teratoma 266 

Tendon ossification 256 

U 

Urinary Secretion 53 

Urine 54 



Page 

Ulcerative sore mouth . .' 147 

Pharyngitis 203 

Sore eye 211 

Ulceration of anus 155, 225 

Cornea 244 

V 

Vaccination 61 

Vas deference 51 

Vascular system ZZ 

Blood 32 

Lymph 32 

Ventilation 59 

Vertigo 277 

Vessels, drinking 65 

Vibrio metchnikovi 187 

Visceral anatomy 22 

Gout 197 

Organs 15 

Vitamines 61 

Volvulus 160 

W 

Walls of house 59 

Water supply 65 

Warts 252 

Weevly wheat 324 

White diarrhea 128 

Bacillary 173 

Chicks 173 

Adults 176 

Coccidian 128 

Scale 107 

Wash 59 

Worms 109 

Caecal 113 

Economic importance of 109 

Eradication of 114 

Gape 115 

Gizzard 114 

Intestinal 109 

Round 109, 110 

Tape ..119 

Wounds 309 

Y 

Yardage system 56 



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